THE EFFECTIVE PUBLIC RELATIONS STRATEGY

EFFECTIVE
PUBLIC
RELATIONS
STRATEGY
RONALD K. BEINOMUGISHA © 2016

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PREFACE
The effective Public Relations strategy offers organization PR practitioners
and university students a new way to deepen their understanding of Public
Relations and other kinds of strategic communication. It is intended for
people serious about entering a profession that is rapidly changing, shedding
a past that often involved merely performing tasks managed by others and
taking on a newer, more mature role in the management of organizations.
According my name sake Ronald D. Smith in his book “strategic planning
for Public Relations 2002” Public Relations professionals used to be called
upon mainly for tasks such as writing news releases, making speeches,
producing videos, publishing newsletters, organizing displays and so on.
Now the profession demands competency in conducting research, making
decisions and solving problems. Therefore, the call now is for strategic
Public Relations.
Ronald D. Smith inspired me to put together this research of many scholars
after reading his book. More so, in the workplace, Public Relations
practitioners often find themselves functioning in both the technical and the
managerial roles, but the balance is shifting. Today’s environment—and
more importantly, tomorrow’s—calls for greater skill on the management
side of communication. The job of strategic communication planning calls
for four particular skills:
1. Understanding research and planning,
2. Knowing how to make strategic choices,

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3. Making selections from an expanding inventory of tactical choices
4. Completing the process by evaluating program effectiveness.
An argument underlying this book is that Public Relations communication
is becoming more strategic, more scientific. It is this strategic perspective
that will differentiate the effective practitioner from the one who simply
performs tasks and provides basic services.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
John Dunne was right that no one is an island. Neither does an author write
alone, instead reflects in some way the insight of others in the field that write,
teach and engage in the practice.
The effective Public Relations Strategy enjoys the input of many people.
As the author of this textbook, I’ll take personal responsibility for any errors
or omissions, but I’m confident these are fewer because of the advice and
assistance of my classmates and Mass Communication lecturer and author
Mr Twinomujuni Reuben and many knowledgeable people who helped with
this book.
Collectively, my lecturers were major contributors to this book. It is in the
classroom that I have tested and refined the ideas contained herein. My
lecturers have always urged me to articulate my ideas.
My special thanks go to Mr Twinomujuni Reuben, who as editor has read
this book far more than anybody ought to. My academic colleagues were
gentle editors, allowing me the freedom to say what I believe needs to be
said, while guiding me to use language clearly and effectively.
If you find this book to be articulate and unconfused, much of the credit
belongs to Mr Reuben.

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DEDICATION
Like the entirety of my life, this book is dedicated to my beloved parents Mr
and Mrs Katungi Fred. My family you are an inspiration to me; my brothers,
sisters, and friends may this book be your pride.
Though they don’t realize it, they have been an inspiration as I worked on
this book mostly my mother Mrs Sarah Katungi, who prepared me juice and
good food as I sat on table writing every day.
My unlimited deal of thanks goes to the Almighty God. During the evolution
of this book, indeed during my entire life, God has been my sounding board.
Himself has lent his ear as I prayed to get what to write and tested ideas. God
has really been on my side during writing this book.

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LIST OF ACROYNMS
BBUC-BISHOP BARHAM UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
PR-PUBLIC RELATIONS
P.R.O-PUBLIC RELATIONS OFFICER
UCU-UGANDA CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY
NCHE-NATIONAL COUNCIL OF HIGHER EDUCATION
TV-TELEVISION
SWOT-STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES TREATS
PRSA-PUBLIC RELATIONS OF AMERICA
CEO-CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER
IABC-INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BUSINESS
COMMUNICATORS
AE-ACCOUNT EXECUTIVE
AVE-ADVERTISING VALUE EQUIVALENT
RACE-RESEARCH, ACTION, COMMUNICATION, EVALUATION

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COURSE OUTLINE
1) Introduction to Public Relations
2) Scope of Public Relations
3) Models of Public Relations
4) Internal communication
5) Public Relations Planning
6) Communication audit
7) Defining “organisational Effectiveness”
8) Problem Definition
9) Reasons for planning
10) SWOT and PEST analyses
11) Bottlenecks faced during planning process
12) Defining objectives
13) Selection of media and techniques
14) Budgeting
15) Evaluation
16) Brain storming

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PUBLIC REATIONS STRATEGY
Public Relations Strategy could be seen as the thinking, the logic behind the
actions (Robert 1997:22). Drucker (1954) sees it as an indication of an
organisation’s positioning for the future, deciding what should be done
rather than how it should be done. Strategy requires choices—deciding what
particular kind of value an organisation wants to deliver to whom (Porter, in
Gibson 1997).
Strategy is a plan that can be used by both government and nongovernmental
organisations to build and maintain mutual understanding with the Publics.
It is a tool which can be used to facilitate development in any country or
organisation that is desperate for social, economic, political and
technological development.
Public Relations is a management function in human organisation, which
helps in establishing a favourable relationship between an organisation and
its publics. The importance of this is that, every organisation, be it
commercial or non-commercial, government or non-governmental, has
certain goals to achieve; such goals may be long term or short term, ranging
from increase in sales, expansion, customer satisfaction, innovation, fighting
competition, diversification and increase in the numbers of customers.
This can be achieved only by developing an effective PR strategy for the
coordination of activities that will be needed to achieve these goals and
objectives.

9
Public Relations, which is a management function becomes handy in
facilitating effective communication of organisational goals and objectives.
The Public Relations department in any human organisation handles various
activities, which include: conflict resolution or crisis management, internal
or employee relations, community relations, promotions, media relations,
environmental scanning and sponsorship programmes (Asemah, 2009).
Public Relations is acknowledged to be very vital to the survival of
organisations, institutions and individuals.
Through its multifaceted functions of evaluating attitudes and executing
actions, it eliminates suspicion and friction thereby providing bridges of
understanding upon which goodwill reigns between an organisation and the
Publics that deal with it.

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Chapter One
INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC RELATIONS
Public Relations (PR) is not uniformly defined since several scholars have
given different definitions but there are main areas that should never be left out
in defining Public Relations. These areas should acknowledge that Public
Relations is a management function, it is about mutually beneficial
relationships. Sam Black, in The Essentials of Public Relations adds such
keywords as reputation, credibility, confidence, harmony and achieving mutual
understanding through truth and full information.
Public Relations is fundamentally the art and science of establishing
relationships between an organization and its key audiences. Public Relations
plays a key role in helping business industries create strong relationships with
customers.
Public Relations involves supervising and assessing public attitudes, and
maintaining mutual relations and understanding between an organization and
its public. The function of Public Relations is to improve channels of
communication and to institute new ways of setting up a two-way flow of
information and understanding.
Glen. M. Broom in Effective Public Relations defines Public Relations as a
discipline, which looks after reputation, with the aim of earning understanding
and support and influencing opinion and behaviour. It is the planned and

11
sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding
between an organisation and its publics.
Otis Baskin, Craig Aronnoff and Dan Lattimore in Public Relations, the
profession and the Practice, define Public Relations as a management function
that helps achieve organisational objectives, define philosophy, and facilitate
organisational change.
According to the Public Relations Institute of America, Public Relations is the
deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain
understanding between an organisation and its publics
As for me, Public Relations is the management function that identifies
establishes and sustains mutually beneficial relationships between an
organization and the various publics on whom its successes or failures depend.
Operational definition
In operational terms, Public Relations is the management function that
evaluates public attitude, identifies the policies and procedures of an individual
or an organisation with public interests, and plans and executes actions to earn
public understanding and acceptance.
The scholarly definition
According to Dr. Rex Francis Harlow, the writer, editor, publisher, and an
authority in and pioneer of Public Relations, Public Relations is the
distinctive management function, which helps establish and maintain mutual

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lines of communication, understanding, acceptance and cooperation
between an organization and its publics; involves the management of
problems or issues; helps management to keep informed on and responsive
to public opinion; defines and emphasizes the responsibility of management
to serve the public interest; helps management keep abreast of and
effectively utilize change, serving as an early warning system to help
anticipate trends; and uses research and sound and ethical communication as
its principal tools.
Public Relations involves the cultivation of favorable relations for
organizations and products with its key publics through the use of a variety
of communication channels and tools. Traditionally, this meant Public
Relations professionals would work with members of the news media to
build a favorable image by publicizing the organisation or products through
stories in print and broadcast media. But today the role of Public Relations
is much broader and includes:
a) Building awareness and a favorable image for a company or client within
stories and articles found in relevant media outlets
b) Closely monitoring numerous media channels for public comment about
a company and its products or services
c) Managing crises that threaten the company itself, its services, products
or image
d) Building goodwill among an organization’s target market through
community, humanitarian, special programs and events

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As a management function, Public Relations also incorporates the following:
1) Anticipating, analyzing and interpreting public opinion, attitudes and
issues that might impact, for good or for ill, the operations and plans
of the organization.
2) Counseling management at all levels in the organization with regard
to policy decisions, courses of action and communication, taking into
account their public consequences and the organization’s social
responsibilities.
3) Researching and evaluating, on a continuing basis, programs of action
and communication to achieve an informed public understanding
necessary to the success of an organization’s aims. These may include
marketing, financial, fundraising, employee, community or
government relations and other programs.
4) Planning and implementing the organization’s efforts to influence or
change public policy. Setting objectives, planning, budgeting,
recruiting and training staff, developing facilities — in short,
managing the resources needed to perform all of the above.
The Essentiality of Public Relations
a. To research and analyse future trends and predict their consequences and
accordingly advise management for action and implementation

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b. To promote public acceptance
c. To identify, establish and maintain all relationships between an
organisation and all its stakeholders
d. To ensure proper perception/ building a positive image for an
organisation based on truth and factual presentations, not lies and spin
e. Promoting services and products of an organisation, business or
individual
f. Ensuring a 2-way communication between an organisation and its
publics
g. Ensuring cooperation between an organisation and its publics.
The Public Relations practitioner is constantly striving to start, lead, change,
speed or slow trends in public opinion and interest. The basic purpose of
Public Relations is to assist managers in establishing, regulating and
maintaining satisfactory relationships between and among social units.
MODELS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS
Models of Public Relations were proposed by James E. Grunig, a noted
public Relations theorist who has to his credit several books, articles,
chapters and awards in the field of Public Relations. According to James E.
Grunig, there are four models of Public Relations:
1. Press Agentry/Publicity

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Press Agentry/ Publicity model follows one-way communication where the
flow of information is only from the sender to the receiver. The sender is not
much concerned about the second party’s feedback, reviews and so on.
In Press Agentry/publicity model, Public Relations experts enhance the
reputation of the organization among the target audiences, stakeholders,
employees, partners, investors and all others associated with it through
manipulation. According to this model, organizations hire Public Relations
experts who create a positive image of their brand in the minds of target
audiences through arguments and reasoning.
2. Public Information Model
As the name suggests public information model, emphasizes on maintaining
and enhancing the image of an organization simply by circulating relevant
and meaningful information among the target audience/public. Public
Relations experts depend on press release, news release, video release or any
other recorded communication often directed at the media to circulate
information about their brand among the public.
Newsletters, brochures, magazines with information about the organization,
its key people, and products, benefits of the products, testimonials, and
success stories are distributed at regular intervals among target audiences for
brand positioning. Public information model also revolves around one-way
communication where information primarily flows from sender

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(organization and public relations experts) to the receiver (target audience,
employees, stake holders, employees, investors and so on).
3. Two-Way Asymmetrical Model
Two-way asymmetrical model of public relations revolves around two-way
communication between both the parties but the communication is
somewhat not balanced. In this type of model, public relations experts
position their organization and brand on the whole in the minds of their
target audiences through manipulation and force the public to behave the
same way they would want them to do. In two-way asymmetrical model of
public relations, organizations do not utilize much of their manpower and
resources to find out the reaction of the stakeholders, investors or public for
that matter.
4. Two-way Symmetrical Model
Two-way symmetrical model of Public Relations is an ideal way of
enhancing an organization’s reputation among the target audience.
According to two-way symmetrical model, Public Relations experts depend
on two-way communication to position their brand among end-users. Free
flow of information takes place between the organization and its stake
holders, employees, investors and vice-a-versa. Conflicts and
misunderstandings are resolved through mutual discussions and
communication. A two-way communication takes place between both the

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parties and information flows in its desired form. The feedback from
stakeholders and target audiences are also taken into consideration.
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION
Internal communication is communication within an organization. It
encompasses both "official" communication - memos, guidelines, policies and
procedures, etc. as well as the unofficial communication that goes on among
and between the staff members of all organizations i.e. the exchange of ideas
and opinions, the development of personal relationships, and the usual
conversations. It goes in all directions among line staff (those who do the
specific work of the organization and work directly with the target population),
administrators, supervisors, clerical and support staff, volunteers, and, perhaps,
even the Board of Directors.
Internal communication is a lot more than people talking to one another,
however. It's the life blood of any organization, the way in which everyone
gets the information they need. It means that anyone can easily get his question
answered, as well as that no one gets left out when there's a birthday celebration
for a staff member.
Good internal communication can:
1) Provide people the information they need to do their jobs effectively

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2) Make sure they know about anything that concerns them
3) Provide people with clear standards and expectations for their work
4) Give people feedback on their own performance
5) Provide them emotional support for difficult work
6) Suggest new ideas about both their work and their lives
7) Allow them to take the pulse of the organization and understand its
overall situation
8) Help them maintain a shared vision and a sense of ownership in the
organization
Communication, in general, is the process of transmitting ideas, thoughts,
information, emotions, etc. between and among people. Regardless of the
context in which this transmission occurs, there are certain basic ideas about
communication which always apply, and which should be understood when
reading this section.
Communication is not one-sided. You can blanket the organization with
information, but if that information isn't understood, or isn't understood in
the way you meant it, you might as well not have bothered. Any good
communicator has to empathize with the audience and try to anticipate what
they will think and how they will feel about a message they receive.
Communication involves more than words. It can include body language,
facial expression, and tone of voice, as well as the attitude and general tone
that are projected in speech, writing, or actions. The condescending or

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hostile message sent by someone's tone or stance may be stronger than the
supportive message sent by his words.
Communication can either be direct (i.e. go directly from the source to the
recipient of the message) or indirect (i.e. either go through a third or fourth
or fifth party). While indirect communication is often necessary, it always
carries the possibility that its message will be distorted as it goes through the
network between the source and the recipient, and it also eliminates the
source's non-verbal communication. (E-mail and memos do the same.)
Different individuals and groups communicate using different styles and
assumptions. People's personal experience, gender, racial and cultural
background, education, and perception of who has power all influence how
they send, receive, and interpret communication.
All communication has three aspects: its content; the tone in which it's
delivered; and the structure through which it's delivered. All of these
together contribute to what the communication's actual message is, how well
the communication is understood, what effect it has on the person or group
to whom it's directed, and what its ultimate result will be.
To communicate effectively, organizations and individuals have to take all of
these ideas into account.

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HOW DO YOU PROMOTE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION?
A)Clear definitions of what needs to be communicated and by whom
Much of the information an individual gets is directly related only to him or
his job. He obviously can't relay all of it to everyone else. What needs to be
communicated to others, and who is responsible for doing it? The answers to
those questions will vary from organization to organization, but here are some
broad guidelines:
1. Any information that anyone needs to do his job or to better understand
the context of the work should be communicated to him immediately by
whoever has the information.
Some possibilities here include information from another staff member
about a participant that both are working with; information from another
staff member about a situation that he is about to encounter as part of his
job; or new rules, regulations, guidelines, etc. that affect his work (from the
director or his supervisor if they are internal; from whoever learned about
them if they are external, e.g. federal laws).
People often forget that, in order to do their jobs, receptionists or others who
may take messages for them need to know such things as when they're
available, where they're going to be, and when they'll be back.
2. Anything that directly affects the work, employment status, working
conditions, or working relationships of an individual should be
immediately communicated to Him/her. A potential layoff, a raise in pay,

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a change in job conditions, and a promotion - all of these fall into this
category.
3. Any problem or issue with someone's job performance should be
communicated to him/her as soon as it becomes apparent. Rather than
"You're messing up. You better get your act together," it should take the
form of a supervisory session. The staff member should be informed by
his supervisor of exactly what the problem is, and the two should work
together -- with others if appropriate -- to find ways to solve it, and to
improve on performance.
4. Any problems that arise between or among staff members should be
addressed immediately. As discussed above, the ideal is that all parties
would be capable of simply dealing with the issue face to face. If they can't
or aren't willing to, there should be an organizational procedure by which
the situation can be mediated by someone trusted by everyone involved.
In either case, it's vital that the situation be identified by at least one of the
parties involved as quickly as possible, so that it can be addressed and
resolved before it affects the work of the organization.
5. Any problems between staff and the organization as a whole or general
staff dissatisfaction with any aspect of their situation (pay, working
conditions, the running of the organization, etc.) needs to be
communicated reasonably and quickly to the director or other person
designated to handle those issues. (In a large organization, there may
actually be a human resource director or other administrator who deals
specifically with personnel issues. In smaller organizations, the director

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may be the only administrator, and may do everything that line staff
doesn’t.)
6. Any information important to the working of the organization as a whole
-- a funding cut or increase, a visit by a celebrity, a staff resignation, a new
program possibility, etc. -- should be communicated to everyone, usually
by the director. (In the case of a resignation, the staff member may want to
write a general note or tell others herself at a meeting or individually.)
7. Positive information, praise, etc. should be communicated as often as
possible by anyone who has it to give, but especially by directors or
supervisors. People in grass-roots and community-based organizations too
often deal with bad news. They need to hear good news and get credit for
what they do.
In situations where an individual is being praised for a job well done, he should
be praised twice: once privately by his supervisor or the director, and then
again publicly (at a staff meeting or awards presentation). And every
opportunity should be taken to pass around that kind of praise.
B) Systems
Just about every organization sets up systems of different kinds to make it
easier or more effective to complete some parts of its task. Internal
communication can be muted by your organization's systems, or it can be
promoted and strengthened through both existing systems and new ones you
create for the purpose. It helps both to understand what you can do, and what

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you'd be better off not doing. Some ways that can be used to promote and
strengthen internal communication
C)Hiring
You may already have a plan for hiring staff members. It can easily include
making clear to all applicants -- for every job in the organization -- that
communication is absolutely necessary to what goes on in the organization,
and that openness is part of the organizational culture. Your hiring plan can
also include searching for people with the qualities that foster openness and
communication -- comfort with oneself, friendliness, a sense of humor, a
relaxed attitude, among many others. You may be able to devise questions and
structure the interview situation to find those qualities. An important piece of
this process is to be sure that your communication with applicants, including
the interview itself, models what you're seeking in the working of the
organization.
D)Staff training
As with hiring, you may already have a staff training plan or program. You can
adapt it for promoting internal communication by adding or enhancing training
in the communication needs of the organization and individuals
Training, like every other aspect of the organization, should reflect the values
you want to communicate. If all training is lecture, or is passed down as "truth”
by an authority figure, it is unlikely that trainees will feel that the
organizational culture is one of openness, or that their opinions matter. If

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people are encouraged to share their own experiences, to discuss any
information given, to challenge the trainer if they disagree, not only will the
training be more valuable, but new staff members will learn what the
organization wants and expects from them. In short, the form and the content
of the training have to go together.
E) Supervision
The form that supervision takes in an organization can easily either foster or
stifle internal communication. If supervision is seen as intrusive and punitive
(like looking over people's shoulders and trying to catch them doing something
wrong), internal communication, particularly among supervisors and
supervisees, probably won't benefit. If supervision is seen -- and practiced --
as supportive and helpful, a way to continually enhance the quality of one's
work, then internal communication is more likely to flourish. Another role that
supervision plays here is that it can help staff and volunteers to examine and
improve their own communication, and thus improve communication within
the organization.
F) Regular meetings
A staff of any size, particularly one that operates out of a variety of places
(different communities, for instance), should meet regularly, ideally every
week. Such meetings are often slighted because they appear to take time away
from the work of the organization, or because most people dislike them. But
they are, in fact, vital to the work of the organization, allowing people the

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chance to share ideas (and thus improve their own work by applying what
they've heard), hear what's going on in the organization as a whole (and
confirm their commitment to the work), and renew relationships with one
another (making it easier to work together).
Chapter two
PUBLIC RELATIONS PLANNING
Introduction
Planning simply means making arrangement for tomorrow Armstrong;
(1995:234) says that as a manager, you will normally plan ahead over a
relatively short period of time -up to one or at most two years.
Nnaemeka in Salu (1993:8) observes that planned Public Relations efforts
have form and order, and are generally designed to merge to specific
corporate philosophy or mission of an organisation, it’s administrative the
workers' welfare, it is also planned Public Relations

26
Planning is such an important part of Public Relations; it is useful to
understand the different requirements of an event, a campaign, and a
programme.
The process PR planning has deliberated steps, and they must be taken in
sequence. Careful planning leads to programs that are proactive and
preventative, rather than to activities that are merely reactive and remedial.
At the same time, the steps in this process are flexible enough to allow for
constant monitoring, testing and adjusting as needed.
A few practitioners may admit (somewhat guiltily) that they don't do much
planning. If they are being honest, they'll tell you they know they've been
lucky so far with their guesses. Perhaps they don't do formal planning
because they don't have the time or because the environment is so unstable
that all they can do is react. The good ones have learned how to build the
research and planning components into their work and "sell" it to their clients
and bosses.
THE PROCESS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS PLANNING &
PROGRAMMING
Stephen R. Covey- in his Book “The Seven Habits of Highly Effective
People”, (Stephen R. Covey, 1989, 2004) he puts the second habit as “Begin
with End in mind”. This means you visualise where you are going even
before the start of the journey. This will motivate you in preparation.
Jesus Christ during his mission on earth challenged people to plan first;

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Luke 14:25-35; ... “But don’t begin until you count the cost. For who would
begin construction of a building without first calculating the cost to see if
there is enough money to finish it?
Otherwise you might complete only the foundation before running out of
money and then everyone would laugh at you” (NLT)
In Relation to this I will make an overview of the four-phase, nine-step
planning process presented in the textbook Strategic Planning for Public
Relations (Smith, R.D. 2008, Routledge /Taylor & Francis).
The steps are equally applicable to campaign planning in Public Relations,
advertising and integrated communication
1. FORMATIVE RESEARCH
The first step during PR strategic planning process is Formative Research,
the focus is on the initial work of communication planning, which is the need
to gather information and analyse the situation.
Research is a fact-finding exercise. The Public Relations practitioner in the
course of his practice engages in a lot of research. This is done before, during
and after a Public Relations campaign.
Public Relations Practitioners research before PR campaigns so as to know
the major problems on ground; research is done during the campaign so as

28
to find out how the campaign is going, while research is done after the
campaign so as to evaluate the campaign either in success or in failure.
Public Relations is a research-based activity.
Research provides information with which Public Relations decisions are
taken and programmes are planned. Public relations research helps in
understanding the terrain upon which to operate and how to tread cautiously
and carefully in a bid to sustain goodwill for an organisation.
The organisation gives the PRO the paint and brush, His/her role is to paint
its picture to where it was, where it is and where it is heading. All this begin
from research
I. Analysing the Situation (Where we were)
The analysis of the situation is the crucial beginning to the process. It is very
important that all involved-planner, clients, supervisors, key colleagues and
the ultimate decision makers-are in solid agreement about the nature of the
opportunity or obstacle to be addressed in this program. Discovering the
origin of the organisation in order to paint a clear picture of the situation and
know the causes.
II. Analysing the Organization (where we are)
This step involves a careful and candid look at three aspects of the
organization: (1) its internal environment (mission, performance and
resources), (2) its public perception (reputation) and (3) its external

29
environment, (competitors and opponents, as well as supporters). At this
stage, one discovers the stand of the organization and its identity or
uniqueness. This helps the planner to clearly tell the current state of the
organisation
III. Analysing the Publics
In this step you identify and analyse your key publics-the various groups of
people who interact with your organization on the issue at hand. Strategic
Planning for Public Relations provides an objective technique for setting
priorities among the various publics, helping you select those most important
on the particular issue being dealt with.
This step includes an analysis of each public in terms of their wants, needs
and expectations about the issue, their relationship to the organization, their
involvement in communication and with various media, and a variety of
social, economic, political, cultural and technological trends that may affect
them.
Importance of Research in Public Relations
Research is an essential part of Public Relations Planning. Here is a closer
look at why scholars argued that conducting both formative and evaluative
research is vital in modern Public Relations Planning
a) Research makes communication two-way by collecting information
from publics rather than one-way, which is a simple dissemination of
information. Scholars find that two-way communication is generally

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more effective than one-way communication, especially in instances
in which the organization is heavily regulated by government or
confronts a chaotic environment in the form of changing industry
trends or of activist groups.
b) Research allows us to engage in dialogue with publics, understanding
their beliefs and values, and working to build understanding on their
part of the internal workings and policies of the organization.
c) Research makes Public Relations activities strategic by ensuring that
communication is specifically targeted to publics who want, need, or
care about the information. Without conducting research, Public
Relations is based on experience or instinct, neither of which play
large roles in strategic management. This type of research prevents us
from wasting money on communications that are not reaching
intended publics or not doing the job that we had designed them to do.
d) Research allows us to show results, to measure impact, and to refocus
our efforts based on those numbers. For example, if an initiative is not
working with a certain public we can show that ineffectiveness
statistically, and the communication can be redesigned or eliminated.
Thus, we can direct funds toward more successful elements of the
Public Relations initiative.
e) Without research, Public Relations would not be a true management
function. It would not be strategic or a part of executive strategic
planning, but would regress to the days of simple press Agentry,
following hunches and instinct to create publicity.

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f) As a true management function, Public Relations uses research to
identify issues and engage in problem solving, to prevent and manage
crises, to make organizations responsive and responsible to their
publics, to create better organizational policy, and to build and
maintain long-term relationships with publics.
g) A thorough knowledge of research methods and extensive analyses of
data also allow Public Relations practitioners a seat in the dominant
coalition and a way to illustrate the value and worth of their activities.
In this manner, research is the strategic foundation of modern Public
Relations.
2. STRATEGY
The second phase of the planning process, Strategy, deals with the heart of
planning: making decisions dealing with the expected impact of the
communication, as well as the nature of the communication itself.
a) Establishing Goals and Objectives (where we want to be)
Step 4 focuses on the ultimate position being sought for the organization and
for the product or service. This step helps you develop clear, specific and
measurable objectives that identify the organization's hoped-for impact on
the awareness, acceptance and action of each key public. A good deal of
attention is given to objectives dealing with acceptance of the message,
because this is the most crucial area for public relations and marketing
communication strategists.

32
b) Formulating Action and Response Strategies
A range of actions is available to the organization, and in this step you
consider what you might do in various situations. This section includes
typologies of initiatives and responses.
c) Designing Effective Communication
This deals with the various decisions about the message, such as the sources
who will present the message to the key publics, the content of the message,
its tone and style, verbal and nonverbal cues, and related issues. Lessons
from research about persuasive communication and dialogue will be applied
for the ultimate purpose of designing a message that reflects the information
gained through researching.
3. TACTICS
During the Tactics phase, various communication tools are considered and
the visible elements of the communication plan are created.
Selecting Communication Tactics
This inventory deals with the various communication options. Specifically,
the planner considers four categories: (1) face-to-face communication and
opportunities for personal involvement, (2) organizational media
(sometimes called controlled media), (3) news media (uncontrolled media)
and (4) advertising and promotional media (another form of controlled
media). While all of these tools can be used by any organization, not every

33
tool is appropriate for each issue. Following the menu review, the planner
packages the tactics into a cohesive communication program.
4. IMPLEMENTING THE STRATEGIC PLAN
In Step 8, you develop budgets and schedules and otherwise prepare to
implement the communication program. This, step turns the raw ingredients
identified in the previous step into a recipe for successful Public Relations
and marketing communication.
5. EVALUATIVE RESEARCH
The final phase, Evaluative Research, deals with evaluation and assessment,
enabling you to determine the degree to which the stated objectives have
been met and thus to modify or continue the communication activities.
This is the final planning element, indicating specific methods for measuring
the effectiveness of each recommended tactic in meeting the stated
objectives.
For any effective PR strategy planning must be done so well in order to make
smart actions, this helps PR officer to begin with the end in mind.
In summary, once goals and objectives are in place, they can be drawn upon
to plan campaigns and programs. The following should be done;
I. Research on the problem or opportunity
II. Action that includes evaluation and planning
III. Communication of the message from organization to publics,

34
IV. Evaluation of the effects of those messages
Grunig’s “Behavioral Molecule” further broke the planning steps
into:
a) detecting a problem
b) constructing a possible solution
c) defining alternatives
d) selecting the best course of action
e) confirming the choice by pre-testing
f) Behaving by enacting a program, and then returning to the
process of detecting whether the program met the desired
objectives.
In conclusion therefore, planning in Public Relations is vital and important.
It guides all PR activities in an organisation. Without planning an
organisation appears to be like a person walking with his/her eyes closed.
Effective Public Relations practitioners open the eyes of their organisations
by carrying out planning.
A PRO in a company is like “a one-eyed man among blind men” ready to
guide his organisation to take right and ethical decision in order to win
Publics favour and maintain its reputation. PROs in short are stewards.
10 Steps to Creating a Successful Public Relations Plan

35
Creating a public relations plan takes time, knowledge, and understanding
of your company or client needs and wants. Here are some steps to ensure
you capture those wants and needs in the plan creation process and that you
create a plan that is relevant and useful to your company or client.
1. Know your company's or clients’ current situation. This is essential
to knowing where the company now stands, where the company is able
to go, what the company's market/industry looks like, and what direction
the company is headed. This helps to put things in perspective.
2. Know your resources. This can be a part of the first step, as it is a part
of the situational analysis needed to understand where your company or
client currently stands. This can help you better build your tactics and
strategies while considering the budget, time, and other resource
limitations the company or client may have.
3. Know your objectives and goals. Also essential to the PR plan having
success, you must know where the company hopes to go. Like driving
with no directions, a PR plan with no goals or objectives is an aimless
action with no knowledge of what could come, or even what results are
desired. Be sure that the PR plan's objectives are in line with the rest of
the company's overall objectives, and ensure that they are clear to all
involved.
4. Know and define your target audience(s). This means that you've
defined your target buyer audiences and target media audiences. Each
audience will need a different message and a different approach.

36
Knowing these audiences will help you to frame your strategies and
tactics so that you can effectively reach the people you hope to reach.
5. List messages and strategies, you will use to reach the target audiences
you defined. These should be in line with the goals and objectives listed
earlier; if they are not, the plan is already off to a somewhat bad start.
Know that your strategies and messages also need to relate to one
another, otherwise there is some disconnect happening that needs to be
addressed.
6. Define the tactics you will use to make the strategies you've listed a
reality. These tactics will take the messages and strategies listed and
make them happen. If, for example, a strategy is to enhance a company's
brand awareness, tactics could include community outreach, social
media use, press conferences, etc. There first needs to be a strategy
defined before tactics can be addressed and assigned to a message.
7. Create a time-line for implementation. This needs to be realistic but
also challenging. Remember that there should be no lapses in the PR plan
where press releases are being sent out, events are taking place, or media
are being engaged. There needs to be constant reminder to the public that
the company is alive and well, and that can be done with constant
information being sent out.
8. Delegate obligations and responsibilities to your team or your client's
team to ensure all parts of the PR plan are completed. This helps to
ensure that everyone is on board and that everyone knows their own

37
responsibilities and duties. This is crucial to seeing the PR plan come to
fruition. This step should be done with everyone involved so that no one
feels over-burdened, left out, or given too much responsibility. This can
also help to give everyone the feeling of responsibility since the plan was
created with everyone together and not just one person's say.
9. Create measurements of results/ success. To know if your plan is
effective, create measurements and benchmarks for the tactics you
implement. This is a place for the PR team to gauge the success of the
plan and to see if goals were realistic. Creating measurements can also
help to show what could have been done with the expertise and
estimations of a PR firm or team.
10. Review the plan after implementation and conclusion of the plan.
This is the time when all who helped to create and carry-out the plan can
come together and share their thoughts on what went well, what didn't
go so well, and what could be done differently in the future. This needs
to be done to ensure that future plans have a chance of being successful.
This step can help to encourage group members to continue working for
the company's success by giving everyone a chance to talk and contribute
to the next planning.
The key to remember when creating a PR plan is that all plans are going to
be unique and different for each company, and even within the same
company, they will be different for each plan objective/goal. Do your

38
homework before creating a plan, and be sure that you work closely with the
company or client to make the plan a success.
COMMUNICATION AUDIT
Introduction
A communication audit is a comprehensive evaluation of an organization’s
ability to send, receive and share information with various audiences within
the organization (and as organizations become flatter to allow groups within
the organization to cooperate and share among themselves), as well at key

39
constituencies outside, such as customers and investors, in the case of publicly
traded companies.
This type of audit can be performed to evaluate an organization's external or
internal communication effectiveness. The purpose of a communication audit
is to uncover the strengths and weaknesses between management, typically,
and employees, customers and other groups such as investors, the news media,
and regulators and legislative bodies with the objective to improve future
communications by developing a strategic plan, through a series of
recommendations, and to determine where gaps exists which need to be
bridged.
Communication audits are concerned with how we communicate to each
other. Do we use Television, radio or newspapers? What are the results?
Generally, in defining the PR problem, we identify an issue within the
opinion of the publics. After this identification, we set out to discover the
extent to which this problem affects or influences our audiences. Through
research, we get to understand and analyse the issues better. To analyse
better, we go through 3 phases
Internal factors; are concerned with the history and the long-term goals of
an organisation; where are we coming from and where do we want to go?
We also need to carry out a communications audit to know in detail what,
how and to whom we should communicate. This caters for the
communication needs, policies in place, practices and capabilities to give us

40
data, which enables top management in making informed and economical
decisions about future organizational communication objectives.
External factors; this focuses on both the positive and the negative,
understands how those currently involved and affected are in that situation
and how they got to be there. It involves a systematic review of how
problems affect and involve the recipients of the organization’s services.
The stakeholders; their feelings and knowledge on the problem are
important because their interdependent relationship with the organisation
can never be under looked. The PR practitioner, of course with support from
top management should always carry out periodic stakeholder analyses to
monitor the impact of organizational policies, procedures, actions and goals.
DEFINING “ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS”
Introduction
Organizational Effectiveness is the efficiency with which an association is
able to meet its objectives. The main measure of organizational effectiveness

41
for a business will generally be expressed in terms of how well its net
profitability compares with its target profitability. Additional measures
might include growth data and the results of customer satisfaction surveys
This chapter introduces you to several different management theories that
help define organizational success and the Public Relations role in managing
that success. I have included this part because it is vital in effective PR
strategy.
1. Systems Theory Approach
A systems model approach was developed as a reaction to the limitations of
the goal-attainment perspective.
The view of organizations as open social systems that must interact with
their environments in order to survive is known as
the systems theory approach. Organizations depend on their environments
for several essential resources: customers who purchase the product or
service, suppliers who provide materials, employees who provide labour or
management, shareholders who invest, and governments that regulate.
According to Cutlip, Canter, and Broom, Public Relations’ essential role is
to help organizations adjust and adapt to changes in an organization’s
environment by developing an effective PR Strategy.
The open-systems approach was first applied by Katz and Kahn, who
adapted General Systems Theory to organizational behaviour. This
approach identifies organizational behaviour by mapping the repeated cycles
of input, throughput, output, and feedback between an organization and its

42
external environment. Systems receive input from the environment either as
information or in the form of resources.
The systems approach is an external standard that measures effectiveness
based on long-term growth or sustainability.” If an organization is able to
maintain a steady state, which includes not just survival but also growth,
then it is effective.
The practical implementation of this approach keeps Public Relations from
being used as a simple publicity function, and places the function squarely
in the strategic planning process.
2. Stakeholder Management Approach
The stakeholder management approach adds focus to the systems approach
by building “strategic constituencies.” Robbins declared that an organization
should be concerned only with the “strategic constituencies” in the
environment who can threaten the organization’s survival. This approach
recognizes that an organization must deal with external and internal publics
who can constrain or enhance its behaviour.
The relationship between an organization and its stakeholders is
called interdependence in systems theory literature. Although these
interdependent relationships limit autonomy, good relationships with
stakeholders limit it less than bad relationships.
When organizations collaborate with key stakeholders the end result is often
an increase of autonomy. Good relationships are developed when an

43
organization voluntarily interacts with its stakeholders to find mutually
beneficial solutions. Poor relationships can result in forced compliance to
restrictions and regulations. When organizations voluntarily establish
relationships with stakeholders they have more autonomy because they are
not forced into these relationships.
Other variables often cited as requirements for organizational
effectiveness include:
a) Quality employees with a passion for their work and a level of
satisfaction that leads to low turnover
b) Communication strategy with consistent and energizing messages
c) Clear practices, policies, and decisions
d) An environment accepting of change and innovation for new product
development
e) Interdepartmental communication
f) Effective management of human resources increased information
sharing, extensive training, financial and non-financial rewards,
appraisal and extensive feedback
g) Strategic choices about which markets to pursue and which opportunities
to ignore but with flexibility to pursue experimentation
h) An ability to anticipate competitor reactions to strategic responses as
well as anticipate employee responses
i) A strategy linked to organizational goals and reviews

44
j) All organizational levels participating in communicating core messages
and communication flowing from top to bottom and bottom to top
k) Good external communication from new releases, fact sheets, annual
reports, supervision and leadership
l) Opportunities for employee advancement and growth
m)An emphasis on planning, training, and support
n) Adaptive organizational forms and structures
o) High levels of organizational trust which minimize the potential for
destructive conflict, unnecessary bureaucratic control and administrative
expenditures.
p) Consistency and congruency between words and actions
q) Effective Boards of Directors
r) Using information technology effectively
s) Integrating employees from different organizational units; particularly
important in multinational organizations
t) An emphasis on ethics, the environment, and sustainability
u) Customer focus and ability to optimize customer value
v) Choosing the right partners and building trusting, durable relationships
w) Empowerment and delegation of real decision-making authority to those
closest to the customers
x) Lean production and an emphasis on efficiency and efficient processes
y) Strong culture and mission
THE SWOT ANALYSIS
Introduction

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The SWOT analysis is an extremely useful tool for understanding and
reviewing the company’s position prior to making decisions about future
company direction or the implementation of a new business idea. A SWOT
analysis can be completed by an individual within the organization (provided
they can take an overview of the current situation) but is often best completed
in a team or group. The discussion itself is informative, and the quality of the
output is better if perceptions are gathered from a number of people.
A very popular tool for analysing situations is the SWOT (strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis. This breaks down a situation by
looking at the internal and external factors that might be contributing to the
situation before developing strategies. The internal factors are the Strengths
and Weaknesses of the organization. The external factors are the
Opportunities and Threats existing in the organization’s environment.
Strength refers to what advantages your organisation has over competitors.
These may include achievements and awards won in the past, recognitions
and other things that your organisation is good at. Some organizations are
renowned for quality services or products. No matter how expensive their
products are, they will take customer preference because customers trust the
organisation and their quality products or services. Some organizations are
known because of their branding and customer care. If you can treat
customers well, they will also be willing to spend an extra shilling.
Weaknesses refer to those areas that your organisation has for long failed to
score highly. It could be that at other things you are always a star but when

46
it comes to say sport, you are flat. In such a case, one should look for other
areas to practice your Corporate Social responsibility (CSR).
Opportunities refer to the chances you have over your competitors. It could
be an already built reputation or the fame you have already established. Use
it to the maximum. Let your audiences hear it every time you speak. Feed
them with it until even the toddlers know it.
Threats are those areas where trouble for your organisation is likely to erupt
from. It could be a bad blood the organisation has with its audiences. Such
acrimony may be due to reasons beyond the organization’s control. For this
case, a professional Public Relations practitioner engages the Transfer
Process.
THE TRANSFER PROCESS
In the transfer process, there are 4 negative feelings among the publics that
can cause antagonism and PR professionals have to utilize 4 positive
approaches to rebut this.
Below are the 4 negatives and 4 positives of the transfer process
Hostility: This is where the organisation has to deal with people’s unfriendly
responses; these may be neighbours or even, at its worst, the major
stakeholders of that organisation, say employees, or students who oppose
anything to do with that organisation. An example in Uganda is when some

47
people had started to circulate messages against a certain sugar company in
Uganda saying people should not buy that sugar. That was hostility.
If that happens and you are the Public Relations practitioner at the time,
don’t resign, tremble or wag. Embark on research to find out the possible
causes. After you are done and equipped with information, employ
Sympathy. Sympathy refers to a situation where you have to understand and
adopt a favourable attitude. Know the causes and, using facts from the
findings, provide right information. With time, this hostile attitude changes
for the better.
Prejudice: According to Concise Oxford English Dictionary, prejudice is
described as a preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual
experience. Your audiences may develop a negative feeling about you and
your services or products unfairly causing prejudice against you. Sit down,
breath in and out and work for Acceptance. This is being able to be
favourable regarded with approval. This also includes providing correct
information and engaging on community based programs to promote
acceptability and reducing prejudice to ground zero
Apathy: This is when your audiences have no interest in whatever you do.
Whether you invent something new, people are indifferent. Plan events
where your audiences are very involved; events that concern them and in
their vicinity. People get interested with proximity. Let them be part of the
story. Let your success be theirs too. You will have sunk the last nail on
apathy’s coffin and given room for the birth of interest.

48
Ignorance: this is lack of knowledge. The problems the organisation is
facing with its audiences could be because the audiences, key stakeholders
have been kept in the dark. Go for Talk Shows, use the media and let them
help you connect with your audiences. When you provide knowledge, you
will relate well with your audiences and all will go well with you.
THE PEST ANALYSIS
The PEST analysis is a tool to evaluate external factors. It is often helpful to
complete a PEST analysis prior to a SWOT analysis, although it may be more
useful to complete a PEST analysis as part of, or after, a SWOT analysis. A
SWOT analysis measures a business unit; a PEST analysis measures trends and
changes in the market.
There is some overlap between PEST and SWOT. Similar factors appear in
each. That said, PEST and SWOT are certainly two different perspectives:
PEST tends to assess a market, including competitors, from the standpoint of a
particular proposition or a business. SWOT in business and marketing tends
to be an assessment of a business or a proposition, whether it is your own
business or (less commonly) a competitor's business or proposition.
Strategic planning is not a precise science - no tool is mandatory - it's a matter
of pragmatic choice as to what helps best to identify and explain the issues.
PEST analysis may useful before SWOT analysis where it helps to identify
SWOT factors. Alternatively, PEST analysis may be incorporated within a

49
SWOT analysis, to achieve the same effect. PEST (Political, Economic, Social
and Technological) becomes more useful and relevant the larger and more
complex the business or proposition, but even for a very small local business a
PEST analysis can still throw up one or two very significant issues that might
otherwise be missed.

50
DEFINING OBJECTIVES
Once you know where you are, you can then determine where you want to
go and how to get there. You may want your objectives to include broader
objectives that cover the entire organisation, specific departments and
sections, long term, short term or seasonal objectives. When establishing
objectives, remember they must be SMART:
SMART objectives
Specific
Measurable
Attainable/Achievable
Realistic
Time bound
Specific
When establishing objectives, they must be Specific enough to identify a
certain problem or project and go for it. Whoever does everything, does
nothing. Forexample, if your concern is raising student numbers, find out
areas that would interest students like sports, comfortable accommodation
facilities, relevant and marketable programs, and those things that would
make them proud and comfortable to share with their peers. If it is improving
relations with say employees, find out what their problem is: is it salary
increment, benefits, health policies, working hours, mistreatment, and
unpaid salaries? Handle one particular thing at a time.

51
There are 3 types of needs that must be followed by any serious Public
Relations practitioner and they must be given attention and other resources
as follows:
a) Ongoing needs 50%
b) Unexpected/crisis needs 30%
c) New needs 20%
It is very important to always draw a calendar of events for each activity and
objectives. If you realize that a certain activity is going to take you the whole
year to achieve, do it that way. This is because some activities may require
that you first convince a rigid management or specific publics. Plan well.
This includes scheduled time to meet specific supervisors and stakeholders,
suppliers, government and other relevant bodies and authorities
Measurable
It is important to quantify objectives. If you want to increase student
numbers, how many do you want and in which period?
Don’t plan for too many who will overwhelm you with your limited class
space and accommodation. If you want customers for your products, how
prepared are you?
You certainly don’t want customers who will drive all the way only to
receive apologies. If it is a financial institution, do you have sufficient funds
to meet the loan needs of so many customers? If you are going to circulate
publications, where and to whom are you going to supply?

52
This will help you not to print so much material that will not be circulated
or giving copies to the illiterate who will use them to light their fires at home.
Researching to know the reading culture of the target audience is very
crucial.
Achievable/Attainable
It is always good to dream big but sensible to reason. Are funds sufficient,
do we have staff to man all that work, do we have materials to use? And do
we have enough time to do the consultations, gather materials and or
information, edit and publish in real time?
Realistic
Some PR practitioners are driven by whims of excitement and behave as if
they have a magic wand they wave and have things done. Ensure that what
you plan is real. Real in the sense that it is common to an organisation with
which you work and again that there will be funds for the same. It is in line
with vision, mission, and values of the organisation.
Time Bound
Timing is very important in planning PR activities and objectives. There
must be a time set to do what. Without time limit of events then nothing will
be accomplished. Therefore, proper timing of events is very vital in
planning. It is always wise to plan well and have timeline for each activity.

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Chapter three
BUDGETING IN PUBLIC RELATIONS
Introduction
Nothing goes for free, so also effective PR does not come cheaply. Certainty
of programmes and sellable ideas invariably ease the task of costing
campaigns. An adequate budget is essential to achieving optimal results. The
organisation must, therefore, benefit and get maximum returns from its
spending. Whether the PR Unit is given a particular budget to work with or
asked to submit a proposal, a reasonable, reliable and achievable cost should
be made.
Once the objective of the programme, the audience, message, channels
of communication and activities are identified, it is easier to make a realistic
budget. A realistic plan of action must be presented together with the cost
of each activity. Unless a budget was once presented and succeeded, the need
to maintain, increase or decrease it should be related to the financial position
and projects of the organisation.
A good budgeting plan may address the problems, objective, public,
strategy, media, message and anticipated result. There should also be a time
frame for each budgeted activity. But it must always be known that the
budget estimate by an in-house PR department must be slightly different
from that of outside consultants’. This may be so, since in-house

54
practitioners will not consider such expenses on salaries and equipment,
which may be at their disposal.
Consultancy fees vary from one firm to the other, depending on their
reputation and size. Their charges could be based on hourly charges for
executive time. Monthly or yearly retainer-ship could be charged for a
programme that runs for a year. Some specific programmes, which are done
on an ad- hoc basis, also attract special fees based purely on the volume of
work covered.
Whether it is in-house or consultancy, an acceptable and accountable
mechanism should be put in place to monitor cost-effectiveness of the
programme which may allow adjustment for total success. An intelligent
resource should be allocated by the management to implement the PR
advice.
Consultancy Budget
The charges for consultancy services vary from one organisation to the other.
But specifically, for a long-time PR campaign, the considerations for the
budget include advisory fees which are charged after the firm has accepted
the service. The consultants charge the expenses to cover the days or hours
of attending meetings, its research and the submission of the report. Another
area is the implementation of the plan. Some in-house staff may take up this
stage unless if the consultant is given the responsibility of implementing the
plan as it is recommended in the report submitted.

55
Operational costs for the real aspect of the programmes are stated and
carried out. These may include the core PR activities such as issuance of
press release, media tour, photography and the use of equipment (fax,
telephone, IT and courier services). Evaluation level is also important for the
consultant to monitor the success of the programme. It carries out secretariat
assignment by opening file for press clips and sending media review to the
clients.
The budgets for all the activities above are measured on man-hours or
daily activities basis.
A typical annual budget is illustrated below.
Press Release 3 x 12month x cost value
Feature Articles 2 x 12month x cost value
Press Briefing 2 x 4quaters x cost value
Photo albums 2 x 4quaters x cost value
Video Recording 2 x 4quarters x cost value
In-house publication 1 x 4quarters x cost value
Meetings 1x 12month x cost value
Reports 1 x 4quarter x cost value
Contingencies 10% of the total

56
The cost value may come in different forms. It may be the cost of single or
combination of production cost, travel expenses, hotel accommodation,
refreshments, man-hour and unit price of items and materials to be used.
Some activities may be undertaken as often as required on a daily, weekly,
fortnightly, monthly, quarterly, biannually, or/and yearly basis.
To convince the client in understanding the significant of the programme,
technical jargons should be avoided. Where necessary to disclose some
technicalities, it should be attached as appendixes.
In-house Budget
The in-house PR practitioner submits annual budget which, after
consideration, the fund involved is released quarterly or monthly to the
office to carry out its activities. Some programmes which are periodical or
exceptional and extraordinary are funded at the appropriate time.
On the need, request may be made from the approved budget estimate to take
care of events and programmes as they unfold. The illustration below is a
typical annual budget for a big organisation that has large audiences. The
proposals are in two parts. The first part is the budget defence, while the
second part is the breakdown of the request for consideration and approval.
Budget defence
Publications
This is to cover the cost of production/publication of monthly bulletin, yearly
handbook, quarterly magazine, seasonal cards and complimentary cards.

57
Corporate Items
This is required for the production/procurement of corporate items such as
pocket diaries, executive diaries, calendars and address books. These items
will be used as presents or gifts to individuals and organisations as a form of
reciprocation for promoting the organisational statues, as well as seek
goodwill from the recipients.
Media Activities
The amount is needed for extensive media campaign and image building.
These are in the areas of media chat/courtesy calls, press conference
hosting/entertainment, research, editing, publications of articles, video
coverage editing & dubbing, photo coverage/album and entertainment for
media reception. It will also include exhibitions and sponsorships.
Equipment
The sum is required for the purchase of relevant equipment for the office
such as photocopiers, cameras, consumables (video cassettes, films, albums,
inks, etc.) and maintenance and services of media equipment. The essence is
to enhance the output of the PR Unit.
Advertisement
The amount is to cover expenses for the placement of adverts on issues that
concern the organisation in the print and electronic media, and to also cover
the cost of documentaries and live events in the electronic media, including
interviews, among others.

58
Editorial Board Meeting
The fund is for providing the entertainment, materials and incidental
expenses for the meetings of the editorial board.
Information Technology
In its drive to show a high level of integrity and commitment to the public,
the unit should introduce a timely and efficient way of information
dissemination through modern and advance technology. To achieve this
crucial goal, the development of a web site is imperative, where enquiries all
over the world are promptly responded to, through special media technique
of a super highway.
All publications and activities will be displayed in the web site for the public
to access. These will include press releases, feature articles and profiles of
the management. It will also contain handbooks, magazines and pictures of
activities in specified pages on the Internet. The amount would therefore
cover Web Site Development, E-mail Installation/Internet Connection, Web
Hosting, Domain Name Registration, Internet Usage Training and Technical
Support/maintenance.
Human Resources Management
The amount is needed to keep personnel in the Unit up-to-date in the field of
Public Relations and Information Technology. The areas include Training in
Financial Public Relations & Modern Media Techniques, Professional
Seminars, and Conferences &Workshops in media

59
management and Annual Dues & Membership of Professional bodies, i.e.,
PRAU NIPR, NUJ, IPR, etc.
BUDGET BREAKDOWN
Publications
a. Monthly Bulletin Unit Cost x 100 copies x12month =
b. Quarterly Magazine Unit Cost x 100copie x 4quaters =
c. Hand book Unit Cost x 1000copies x 1year =
d. Seasonal Cards Unit Cost x 100copies x 4seasons =
Subtotal =
Corporate Items
a. Pocket Diary Unit Cost X 100copies x 1year =
b. Executive Diary Unit Cost X 100copies x 1year =
c. Calendars Unit Cost X 100copies x 1year =
d. Address Book Unit Cost X 100copies x 1year =
Subtotal =
Media Activities
A. media Chats/Courtesy calls Gen. Expenses X 12month =
b. Press Conferences Gen. Expenses X 2annualy =

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c. Research/Publication of Articles Gen. Expenses X 12month =
d. Video Coverage (editing/dubbing) Gen. Expenses X 12month = E. Photo
Coverage Album /Media Gen. Expenses X 12month =
F. entertainment/Media Reception Gen. Expenses X 12month =
Subtotal
Equipment
a. Procurement of Media Equipment =
b. Consumables (Cassettes, Films, Albums, Inks etc.) =
C. Maintenance & Services of Media Equipment =
Subtotal
Advertisements/Supplements
a. Newspaper Adverts/supplements Rate X Pages X 12month =
b. Electronic Media Commercial Rate x Slot X12months =
Subtotal =
Information Technology (IT)
a. Web Site Development =
b. Email Installation/Internet Connection =
c. Web Hosting =

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d. Domain Name Registration =
e. Internet Usage Training =
f. Technical Support/ Maintenance =
Subtotal =
Human Resources Management
a. Advance Training in Financial Public Relations &
Modern Media Techniques =
b. Professional Seminars, Conferences &
Workshops in media management = =
c. Annual Dues & Membership of Professional bodies, =
Subtotal =
Contingency
Miscellaneous/ Incidental Expenses 10% of the Total =
Grand total
Budgeting, the development of resources needed to achieve objectives, is a
topic that has been “on the table” since the beginning of this planning
process.
Remember that budgeting is about more than money. It deals with all the
needed resources to implement a tactic. Thus budgets for public relations

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and marketing communications should consider five elements: personnel,
material, media costs, equipment and facilities, and administrative costs.
a) Personnel- Personnel items in a budget include the number of people
and the amount of time needed to achieve the results expected of the
strategy. This may include both organizational personnel and outside
people, such as consultants, agency staff, subcontracted specialists and
freelance workers. Specifically, personnel costs may be associated
with research, analysis, planning, writing, editing, design,
photography, events management and so on. Personnel costs can be
expressed either in terms of time (hours or days) needed to complete
the task.
b) Material- Material items in a budget include the “things” associated
with the tactics: paper for brochures, banners for an open house, media
kits for a news conference, uniforms for the softball team your
company is sponsoring and so on.
Additionally, material items may be associated with research
activities, such as the cost of questionnaires or materials for focus
groups. Each of these items carries a price tag, and it is very important
to know exactly the cost of each recommended tactic. If you simply
guess or work from old figures, you may find that you cannot
implement the tactic for the amount that has been budgeted.
C) Media Costs. Money generally is needed for communication
activities, particularly the purchase of time and space associated

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with advertising tactics. Budgets often identify commissionable
media—advertising in newspapers and magazines or commercials
on radio and television.
D)Equipment and Facilities-This category includes the capital cost
of equipment that must be purchased to implement a tactic, such as
a computer, scanner, printer or desktop publishing software needed
to publish a newsletter. Also included here are the capital costs of
obtaining a needed facility, such as modifying a storage area into
an in-house television studio. Note that items in this category often
are one-time expenditures, though a forward looking budget
process would amortize such expenses over the expected life of the
equipment or facility and would be prepared for the time when
replacements would be needed.
E) Administrative Items- A budget also should include the cost of
telephone charges, delivery costs, photocopying and other office
activities, as well as travel costs associated with the project. Some
organizations assess a surcharge, often 15 percent, to offset the cost
of overhead expenses such as rent, maintenance, utilities, taxes etc.
APPROACHES TO BUDGETING
A recurring problem with Public Relations budgeting is that Public Relations
often is not seen as strategic management but rather as the mere production
and distribution of messages.

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Additionally, Public Relations often may be thought to deal with hard-to
measure intangibles such as good will or visibility. Because of this mind set,
Public Relations budgets sometimes are set according to a formula based on
last year’s budget, or worse, as an arbitrary percentage of the wider
administration or marketing program of an organization.
Let’s consider some of the many different ways to approach budgeting:
competitive parity, same-as-before, percentage-of-sales, unit-of-sales, all
you-can-afford, cost-benefit analysis, what-if-not-funded, zero-based, stage-
of-lifestyle and objectives-based.
a) Competitive Parity
The competitive parity approach bases an organization’s budget for various
activities on the level of similar activity by major competitors.
For example, Bishop Barham University may base its budget for recruiting
new students on the apparent budget of Y University, its biggest competitor.
A drawback of this approach is that BBUC will have to guess what Y is
spending, and much of what Y is doing may not be apparent.
Additionally, the two universities may have significantly different situations,
such as the amount of informal recruiting being done by alumni, the
reputation of the two institutions and the amount of their financial
endowment.

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b) Same-as-Before Budgeting
The same-as-before approach looks as how much the organization spent on
a similar recent project and allows the same budget for this project.
But such an approach presumes that two projects are sufficiently similar that
one can serve as a benchmark for the other; it also presumes that the first
project was successful and deserves to be imitated. A related approach is
same-as-before-but-more budgeting, which adds an inflationary increase to
a same-as-before budget.
c) Percentage-of-Sales Budgeting
The percentage-of-sales approach is drawn from the field of marketing,
where some companies base their advertising budget on the previous year’s
profits. This approach may give a generous marketing budget following a
good year but only a meagre budget after a lean year—perhaps just the
opposite of what is needed to overcome a sales slump. In the university
recruiting scenario above, the budget for Public Relations might be based on
the amount of money obtained through tuition fees.
For example, 2 percent of each tuition payment may be earmarked for the
recruiting Public Relations program. However, because much Public
Relations activity is difficult to quantify on a short-term basis, the
percentage-of-sales method generally is a weak approach in this field.

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d) Unit-of-Sales Budgeting
The unit-of-sales approach, similar to percentage of-sales budgeting, is
based not on shillings but rather on prior outcomes. In the university
recruiting situation, the budget might be pegged to the number of students
who register as students.
This approach has a similar drawback to the percentage-of-sales approach in
that it pegs future budgets on past prosperity rather than current needs.
e) All-You-Can-Afford Budgeting
The all-you-can-afford approach works better in good times than in bad. It
provides for Public Relations funding when the organization’s financial
condition is sound, but limits funding during lean times. While this is not a
good approach, in reality it is the way too many organizations approach
Public Relations, as an optional luxury that can be dispensed with when
money is tight. Actually, the hard times are when even more Public Relations
activity may be needed.
f) Cost-Benefit Analysis
The cost-benefit analysis approach to budgeting identifies the cost of
implementing the strategy, and then compares this cost to the estimated
value of the expected results. Ideally, the cost will be significantly less than
the probable benefit.

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g) What-If-Not-Funded Analysis
What-if-not-funded budgets deal with the consequences of inaction and their
effect on the organization’s mission. This approach forces a planner to
consider expected outcomes. For example, the what-if-not-funded scenario
for the tactic of producing a video would have you indicate the expenses
necessary to achieve the objective without the video.
This might mean more workshops involving additional time from the CEO,
or perhaps more brochures with fewer benefits than with the video.
Implicitly or explicitly, the recommended tactic is compared with the
alternatives.
h) Zero-Based Budgeting
Zero-based budgeting is a technique based on current needs rather than past
expenditures. It is common for ongoing organizational budgets, such as
those associated with annual community relations or investor relations
programs; however, the zero-based approach can work with one-time
campaigns as well. In this approach, various tactics are ranked according to
their importance
i) Stage-of-Lifecycle Budgeting-
The stage-of-lifestyle approach looks closely at the phase of development of
the issue, knowing that start-up programs generally require more financial
resources than maintenance programs. Consider, for example, the needs of a
university communication department in transition.

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Let’s say the university is well known for its “academic” approach to
communication, with a focus on research, theory and critical analysis. Let’s
further presume that the university decides to extend itself into more applied
communication areas such as Public Relations, advertising and electronic
journalism. The financial resources needed to recruit students for the new
program will be greater than what is needed to maintain applications to the
current program focus.
j) Objective-Based Budgeting
Objective-based budgeting is a more enlightened approach to budgeting
because it focuses on objectives, which are aligned with needs and goals.
The underlying premise of this approach is that the organization will provide
the resources necessary to achieve its objectives, which already have been
approved by organizational decision makers.
The tactics simply provide ways to achieve what already has been adopted
as the objective. The ability to create effective programs suitable to almost
any budget is one of the real advantages of an integrated approach to public
relations and marketing communication.
MANAGING THE BUDGET
By breaking out each of the various costs associated with the tactic, you are
able to more precisely predict the total cost associated with the program.
Additionally, this breakout allows you to adjust the total budget more easily.

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Another way to stretch a budget is to provide a basic set of recommendations
that fit within the projected budget, then offer an add-on list of optional
tactics that the client may wish to fund because of the added expected
benefit.
Budgets also have a way of inching upward. Perhaps a supplier charges a bit
more than when you first called for an estimate or some of your expense
items were based on a similar project six months ago, but those items now
have increased in price.
Once the budget has been approved, it should be used as a tool to help
manage the implementation of the project. The budget can offer guidance in
scheduling activities, monitoring their progress and assessing their results.
Additionally, the budget should be treated as part of a living document. The
strategic plan is not set in stone once it is approved. Rather, it must have the
flexibility to respond to a changing environment and differing organizational
needs.
Full-Cost Budgets
In presenting the budget to your boss or client, include the full cost of all the
tactics in the program. Some tactics may not have a specific price tag, but if
they are of value to the organization they should be noted, along with
equivalent costs if the tactics were to be purchased.
The major areas of costing in PR
a) Prints and production,

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b) Exhibition
c) Workshops and seminars,
d) Media briefings
e) Conferences,
f) Advertising,
g) Transportation,
h) Sponsorship,
i) Supplements and media coverage
A good budgeting plan may address the problems, objective, public, strategy,
media, message and anticipated result. There should also be a time frame for
each budgeted activity.
MESSAGE DEVELOPMENT
For achieving the desired result, the message should be developed properly
and clearly. The appropriate message will have the following three
attributes:
I. Clear:
The message is free from ambiguity and it is necessary to ensure that slang
phrases / usage are avoided and also the message should be free from
perception distortion problems. As far as possible, one should use simple
language, simple style, appropriate words and right tone.
II. Correct:

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The credibility of the message is based on the credibility of the source and
also the correctness of the content. It is essential to ensure that the
information provided (message) is true, to unbiased and there is a source to
verify it. It is essential to avoid content based on rumours, hearsay as well as
source of no origin.
III. Concise:
Since message dissemination involves time and effort for transmitting as
well as receiving or absorbing. Hence message should be crisp enough to
give information and at the same time not occupying more time of the
receiver’s valuable time. The content should revolve around the core element
of the message; frills and verbose / ornamental language need to be avoided.
The effectiveness of the message is depending upon the above three
attributes and if even component is missing or negative, the result will also
be negative or not as per the expectations.
Shape Your Message
Once you've learned what the audiences think of your organization, you can
then begin to mold your desired image. You can use communications
opportunities to shape your image. If you want the public to see your
organization as progressive, professional or community-minded, look for
opportunities to display those qualities. Then ensure that your target
audiences are aware of what you've accomplished.

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Of course, it's important that you paint a true picture of your organization-
not a fictitious image. But unless the public is made aware of your
progressiveness, professionalism and community-mindedness through your
communications effort, you may never achieve your desired image.
Keep in mind that all events or activities may not receive news media
coverage, but this does not mean that those events cannot be important
Public Relations opportunities.
As you frame your message, first find out which medium is popular in the
area where your intended audiences live. It is obnoxious projecting your
message using Television intending to reach village dwellers where there is
no electricity or working with print media for the illiterate intended
audiences! A radio in this case would perhaps do. It all depends on thorough
ground work you do before commencing with any project
Tools for Reaching Your Audience
There are various important vehicles for reaching your target audiences.
Each vehicle depends on audiences you want to reach, their social lives, their
preferences and what they are able to conveniently access. These include:
– Local reporters
– Editors
– Media directories
– E-mails
– FM stations that are now accessible

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– Corporate magazines and other publications
– Spot adverts and talk shows
– Community Social Responsibility
– Newspapers (dailies & weeklies)
– Posters
– Spoken word
– Documentary films
– House journals
– Audio visuals
– Oral media
– Photography
– Seminars,
workshops
&Conferences
– Graphic

PUBLIC RELATIONS STRATEGY RONALD BEINOMUGISHA
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Chapter five
IMPLEMENTING PUBLIC RELATIONS STATEGY
Introduction
Implementation is defined as a specified set of activities designed to put into
practice an activity or program of known dimensions. According to this
definition, implementation processes are purposeful and are described in
sufficient detail such that independent observers can detect the presence and
strength of the "specific set of activities" related to implementation
According to Kristie Lorette (2016) implementation is an essential part of
the strategic planning process, and organizations that develop strategic plans
must expect to include a process for applying the plan.
The specific implementation process can vary from organization to
organization, dependent largely on the details of the actual strategic plan,
but some basic steps can assist in the process and ensure that
implementation is successful and the strategic plan is effective.
1) Evaluate the strategic plan. The first step in the implementation
process is to step back and make sure that you know what the strategic
plan is. Review it carefully, and highlight any elements of the plan that
might be especially challenging. Recognize any parts of the plan that
might be unrealistic or excessive in cost, either of time or money.
Highlight these, and be sure to keep them in mind as you begin
implementing the strategic plan. Keep back-up ideas in mind in case the
original plan fails.

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2) Create a vision for implementing the strategic plan. This vision might
be a series of goals to be reached, step by step, or an outline of items that
need to be completed. Be sure to let everyone know what the end result
should be and why it is important. Establish a clear image of what the
strategic plan is intended to accomplish.
3) Select team members to help you implement the strategic plan. Make
sure you have a team that “has your back,” so to speak, and understands
the purpose of the plan and the steps involved in implementing it.
Establish a team leader, if other than yourself, who can encourage the
team and field questions or address problems as they arise.
4) Schedule meetings to discuss progress reports. Present the list of
goals or objectives, and let the strategic planning team know what has
been accomplished. Whether the implementation is on schedule, ahead
of schedule, or behind schedule, assess the current schedule regularly to
discuss any changes that need to be made. Establish a rewards system
that recognizes success throughout the process of implementation.
5) Involve the upper management where appropriate. Keep the
organization’s executives informed on what is happening, and provide
progress reports on the implementation of the plan. Letting an
organization’s management know about the progress of implementation
makes them a part of the process, and, should problems arise, the
management will be better able to address concerns or potential changes.

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Strategic communication
Communication must be designed for a situation, place, time and audience.
It calls for careful selection of media and place. It must also be continuous
and consistent. In communication, we must speak the language of our
audiences like youths, women, the elderly, business people, prostitutes, the
illiterate, politicians, donors, the saved etc.
It is important to communicate for impact. Communicating for impact is
close to impossible if the communicator does not employ the 7Cs of
communication and these are:
i) Credibility. Communication here starts with the climate of belief.
Recipients must have confidence in the message sender and a high regard for
the source’s confidence and knowledge of the subject.
ii) Context: Communication never happens in a vacuum. It always takes
place in a context, matching the environment and reality. This context
must provide space for feedback and participation.
iii) Content: the content of the message must have meaning to the
receiver. It must be compatible to their value system. Content
determines the audience because people select information that
promises them great rewards.
iv) Clarity: the message must be simple with the same meaning to both the
sender and the receiver. Complex issues, terminologies should be
compressed into themes, slogans and stereotypes that are clear and
simple to understand by your target audiences.
v) Continuity and consistency: communication is an unending process.
It requires repetition to achieve penetration. The consistent story must
continue

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vi) Channels: respectable channels do a job right. People associate
different values with different channels of communication. This
depends on communication and social audit reports
vii) Capability of the audience: receivers of the message require least
effort to understand and use the message
GUIDELINES FOR IMPLEMENTING A PR STRATEGY
SUCCESSFULLY
Implementing a successful Public Relations strategy is a very complicated
process. It involves a number of techniques used in other forms of
marketing; which seems to confuse many of today’s upcoming business
owners. Understanding its importance is the first step you need to take. From
there you can begin developing the strategies, or possibly hiring the right
people; to get the job done effectively.
1) What’s involved in Public Relations?
The first step to understanding the importance of PR is to figure out
exactly what is involved, and sadly; there is never going to be an exact
answer. Every PR strategy is going to be custom-tailored to the
individual business, as any well-executed marketing plan should be. The
following include some of the more commonly used techniques and can
be used as a guideline for the things involved:
2) Press Releases– Press releases are an excellent way of updating the
public about recent changes regarding your business and its products.
They are often distributed online. Websites such as PR Web allow you
to distribute your press releases throughout major news sites and
search engines extremely quickly.

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3) Media Alerts– Media alerts are similar to a press release. Instead of
providing information about your company changes or products, you
would inform the media about a conference or event you are holding.
The idea behind this is to encourage photographers or reporters to
attend, providing exposure for your company.
4) Press Tours– Identify the important and influential journalists or
bloggers within your industry. Then provide a reason to get them to
meet with you, or simply have a conversation. Create an interesting
and newsworthy topic to do with your business for them to write
about, aiming to make it interesting enough to the readers of the
journalist or blogger. Hopefully, your company will then be put in
front of readers that are directly interested in your niche.
5) Trade Shows- Attending trade shows specific to your industry are an
excellent method for networking with influential people. It allows you
to build up connections, develop your brand, and generate interest in
your company.
6) Email Marketing- Whilst this technique is often heavily associated
with internet marketing, it often plays a key role within a PR expert’s
toolkit. The idea is to create a database of potential and existing
customers. You will then use it to email them with information
regarding your industry, or present them with your new products.
7) Social Networking- With the recent rise in active social media users,
the purpose of social media from a business perspective has risen
dramatically. The idea is to build and maintain relationships with your
potential and existing customers.

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8) Cost Effective Brand Awareness
Developing a Public Relations strategy has often been described as the most
cost-effective method for raising brand awareness, and it is obvious why.
The majority of PR can be done at a surprisingly cheap price, in comparison
to traditional advertising methods. It doesn’t cost a great deal to distribute a
press release, develop a social presence, or attend a press tour. And when
you do these things correctly, your products or message will be placed
directly in front of the eyes of the right people.
9) Develop Credibility
Using PR as a marketing tool also allows you to gain credibility for your
business. Reason being, PR presents people with information from a third
party. We are much more likely to trust positive coverage about companies
that we read in a newspaper, magazine, or on an online press release.
Compare that to the only alternative that will reach the same volume of
audience, such as using television, billboards, radio or other advertising
methods. When you compare the two, you can see why more and more
businesses are starting to develop PR strategies.
Overall, developing a successful PR strategy is fundamental in taking
businesses to the next level. To summarise, it provides the following
benefits:
Benefits of a successful PR strategy
a) It provides a vital role in promoting businesses to their customers.
b) When done correctly, it can often provide a greater result than
advertising, whilst costing less.
c) It allows you to quickly respond to opportunities within publicity.

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d) If you ever experience bad press, having a solid PR strategy in place
will reduce the damage caused.
e) It can improve the overall image of a company within the community.
SEVEN SMART PUBLIC RELATIONS ACTIONS
1. Remain true to your core function.
First and foremost, the single most important step for any public relations
professional and organization to be successful is to remain true to itself and
to its organizations’ core function, aims and objectives. If we ask ourselves
every time we make a decision at any level, “will it contribute to our core
function? Will it help us to benefit our publics?” then our business decisions
will be sound, and we will ensure that our actions are on track.
Often, we are asked to deliver a service or participate in an activity to please
our constituents, and we want to please our constituents, but not at the risk
of working against our core function. This puts together identity and main
objectives of the organisation.
2. Be prepared to answer tough questions.
One of the most important activities and a core element of Public Relations
is to be prepared to answer tough questions. Could we, right now, answer
tough questions? Here are some examples of real and worst case-scenario
questions.
My daughter died from your hotels. How could you let this happen?”
“Why are some first class graduates getting jobs and some are not? Is it
because they are highly qualified?”
“No Way!!

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We may know the answers, but can we answer them in just four seconds?
Then can we combine that answer with a theme – our messages – and create
a 20-second sound bite? The way to accomplish this is to invest in media
and communication training.
3. Invest in media & communication training
Smart Public Relations Officers ensure media training to all employees and
trustees in order to communicate the same messages and can do so in concise
statements. Media training prepares employees to speak to any person,
group or reporter in difficult circumstances.
Media training is crucial for everyone in your organization – even if they
don’t talk with media personnel in a long run they do PR activities.
Therefore, provide training for your front office staff, technicians,
management, and trustees. Each person communicates to someone at some
time, eventually.
Media training also allows us to conquer our fears of speaking. It forces us
to address key issues and get prepared for the tough questions that come our
way. Smart journalists know that PROs are smart to answer them so they
ask other staff who are not trained to speak to media, this happens in times
of crisis. Many staff give information that damage the image of the
organisation
Once media trained, we can’t afford to pass up interviews. It’s not about
simply answering questions; it’s about taking the opportunity to get our
messages to our clients.

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4. Never talk about what you don’t do.
PROs when we do communicate with the media or our constituents, we
should never talk about what we don’t do. It’s a waste of opportunity and
money.
For example, if someone were to ask us “why are you poisoning students
that you’re teaching them?” our first reaction might be to say “we don’t give
poison to students!” But if we say that, research shows that the only words
people will remember from that statement are “we poison.” Instead, use that
question as an opportunity to utilize your mere 20 seconds to deliver positive
messages.
If people ask us “why are you poisoning our students?” we could answer:
“We teach them material proved by NHCE and we are among universities
that are ranked to offer quality education in Africa no wonder we are called
“the centre of excellence in the heart of Africa” In that one sentence, we’re
saying four positive statements and it’s short enough that it won’t be edited.
Taking the time to develop answers based on anticipated or worst case
questions is always a best practice.
5. Take advantage of media interviews.
Say yes to media interviews a good story saves thousands of dollars on paid
advertising. Why pass up those opportunities to get your message
disseminated? You’ll gather more credibility from a reported story than you
will from an advertisement. And you’ll build a better relationship with
reporters as well. Smart PROs don’t say “NO COMMENT” to media.

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Media coverage is FREE. We simply can’t afford to ignore this valuable
resource. Accept every media opportunity possible because it’s really an
opportunity to get YOUR message across. It’s not about simply answering
the reporter’s question. It’s free. It’s priceless. Also, it’s our responsibility
to connect with the very public with whom our success or failure depends.
6. Act with purpose.
A good public relations program doesn’t have to cost a lot of money. In
fact, some of the best award-winning strategies are those that make the
biggest difference for the least amount of money. The key is to act with
purpose defining your program. You do this through a SWOT analysis. A
SWOT analysis is a tool that business planners use to gauge an organization
and its environment. SWOT stands for Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats. The idea is to take advantage of your strengths
and opportunities and to resolve your weaknesses and threats by creating
objectives and working to accomplish those objectives.
7. Utilize your resources and evaluate your Actions
Charity begins at home. Your best resource is right at your fingertips: your
employees. They can give presentations at garden clubs, Bars, parties, in
church, employees’ associations and more. They can write articles for
community magazines and newspapers and utilize cable television and
social media, often overlooked, free and powerful tactics to get your
message across if it helps to meet your objective. Do what you can with the
resources you have at the very least, but work toward conducting research
and evaluation to ensure your money and time are well spent and successful.
There are easy ways to conduct research that are no-to-low cost, such as

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asking callers: “How did you hear about us?” What do you know about us?
What do you think we lack? Such will help you know your stand.
REASONS WHY PR STRATEGIES FAIL (how you can avoid them)
There’s an old saying that if you fail to plan you plan to fail. According to
me, in PR if you plan poorly or implement poorly, you plan or implement
to fail.
According Jessie in her blog in 2013, she gave the following reasons to why
strategic plans fail, these apply to PR.
1. Unrealistic goals or lack of focus and resources
Strategic plans must be focussed and include a manageable, clearly defined
number of goals, objectives, and programs. Adequate resources to
accomplish those goals and objectives outlined in the plan must be
adequately allocated. Short of that a PRO plans to fail when it comes to
implementing this plan.
2. Plans are overly complex
We all know someone whose plan is over-engineering extraordinaire. They
write pages and pages of text, mix in complex, overly detailed charts and
diagrams, and create a schedule with so many contingencies and restrictions
that it becomes virtually impossible to follow — let alone implement — by
the project team. This should not happen in PR at the point of planning.
If plans aren’t effectively capable of being communicated because of their
complexity, then PRO cannot be expected to carry them out as intended.

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3. Financial estimates are significantly inaccurate
All too often, a plan proceeds with little more than a general estimation of
what sorts of resources are needed in terms of money. The further along a
plan is allowed to proceed without adequate financial controls and checks
in place, the higher the overall costs involved. This can include more than
just bottom line financial costs, but can also extend to customer satisfaction
and your perceived reliability as a PR and organisation. Therefore, PROs
should not strain their Budgets because anything can happen from the time
of planning to the end of implementing the Plan.
4. Plans are based on insufficient information
Without a proper tool in place to help PRO flexibly modify plans as the
strategy evolves and more information becomes available, this often
encourages plans that are too high-level or overly broad (and vague).
If plans are based on wrong assumptions due to insufficient or
misunderstood information got during research, they drive the strategy
towards disaster from the outset, particularly if there is no Plan B in place
and no means with which to easily modify the plan before the strategy slides
out of control. I strongly emphasize formative research before, during and
after implementation of the strategy.
5. Inflexible/undefined team roles and responsibilities
Often times, PROs are considered primarily considered as all knowing
creatures as far as communication is concerned. They develop a strategy and
top management wait to measure their performance based on how well they
carried out the strategy. If they question the assumptions, estimates, or the
general approach set forth in the plan, they’re instructed to “just get on with

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it,” as expectations have already been set. Guess who will likely be blamed
if strategy fails?
While it’s imperative that everyone involved in a strategy understands from
the outset what their work is, how it fits into the strategy as a whole, and to
whom they will be reporting, it’s also important that there be mechanisms
by which the PRO involves the top management in planning and
implementing this strategy. This will make it flexible and increase
responsibility
6. Staffing requirements are not fully understood
Resource planning is a crucial part of the project planning process, and, if
not carefully implemented, incorrect assumptions and estimates made
regarding PR resource requirements, including the number, role, skill, and
timing perspectives can impact project timeframe and overall bottom line
costs. After all, Strategies depend on the resources available.
Therefore, research and information are crucial both at the planning stages,
and throughout the strategy process, to monitor availability and strategy
status, and to make any necessary course corrections. To avoid failing to
implement the plan, it is important to first analyse well the resources needed
and those that are available for the strategy to be successful.
7. Project scope inflexible to changes
Experience tells us that simply because a plan has been implemented and
everyone has agreed to it doesn’t mean that all will go as expected. It’s never
a good thing when the scope of a strategy changes. It leads to failure in
implementation if no plan. It can usually be avoided through proper

87
planning. But being adaptable and having a “Plan B” in case it does happen
along the way is imperative to help attain the overall strategy goal.
Considering there are so many reasons why plans can fail, one might wonder
why ever plan at all. For one, mapping out a plan before embarking onto its
implementation has plenty of benefits. It allows for a better understanding
of objectives and their alignment with broader organizational goals, but it
also helps identify and take into account any impediments that exist in
reaching those objectives.
Jessie is one of the best parallel parkers in Iceland Heading marketing,
communications & legal initiatives at Tempo.
Most owners believe that “knowledge is power” however they should
understand that only “applied knowledge” is only the power that works!
Note: To help PR practitioners realise why their marketing strategies fail, I
have considered top 10 reasons for PR strategy failure.
1. No Written Marketing Plan. Blinding glimpse of the obvious on this
one — if you don’t take the time to create a marketing plan, your marketing
will fail.
2. Goals Are Poorly Defined. Every good plan starts with goal
definition. If you don’t define the goals for the plan, there’s no point in
preparing a marketing plan. Make sure marketing goals are aligned with the
business plan and with key business objectives.
3. Unattainable Goals. Nothing is worse than working a plan where the
goals are not even possible. Set realistic marketing goals that can be
achieved if the marketing plan is executed well.

88
4. No Buy-In. Who executes a marketing plan? Chosen team by PRO or
at times everybody in the company. As such, the plan needs to be created
with buy-in from key employees who ultimately will own the execution of
the plan. Getting buy-in, starts with effective marketing planning, and
strategic conversations.
5. No Clear Responsibilities or Accountability. We’ve seen great
marketing plans that fail because tasks are not assigned to individuals and
there is no accountability. Be sure to define who is doing what when as part
of your marketing plan.
6. Wrong People Working the Plan. Even the best laid plans fail if the
people who are in charge of execution don’t have the skills and attributes
needed for successful plan implementation.
7. No Discipline to Execute the Plan. Some organizations talk a good
game on planning but lack the discipline required to implement a plan.
8. Lack of Performance Consequences. What happens when somebody
succeeds at executing the marketing tasks they are responsible? What
happens if they don’t get their assigned tasks done? In order for a marketing
plan to be executed successfully, you’ll need to motivate your team.
9. Lack of Time or Lack of Money. Nothing is more frustrating than
writing a marketing plan and then finding out that there’s no budget to cover
it and everybody is too busy to execute the plan. Be sure to get consensus
on your marketing budget and available resources before you finalize your
plan.
10. Changing Market Conditions. The last reason that marketing plans
can fail is the only one that’s outside of your control. If there are

89
fundamental shifts in the market, your plan may not work. For this reason,
it’s good to revisit your marketing plan frequently during the year to see if
it needs to be updated based on changing marketing conditions.

90
Chapter six
EVALUATION
Introduction
Evaluation is usually done for a specific purpose. It is the process of asking
questions related to a particular topic you are concerned with and collecting
and analysing information to answer those questions. Evaluation is an
interactive process and thus provides continuous feedback: The evaluation
outcomes and results in turn inform the revision of the plan and its
implementation.
Types of Evaluation
There are two main types of evaluation that are often conducted
simultaneously.
1. Process evaluation, or monitoring, is conducted to assess whether a
strategy is being implemented as planned and whether it is reaching its
intended population. Specifically, process evaluation is a sort of quality
assurance that focuses on the implementation itself and, as such, is a critical
component in improving the practices that operationalize strategies.
2. Outcome evaluation, or impact evaluation, is conducted to learn whether
you achieved the intended outcomes of your strategy.
For example, was there a change in the risk and protective factors you
intended to address? Outcome evaluation can tell you if the strategy was
effective. Coupled with process evaluation, outcome evaluation also focuses
on determining whether or not the strategy intervention was responsible for
any observed outcomes.

91
For instance, was there a change in the risk and/or protective factors you
intended to address and, if yes, was it the strategy that brought about them
about?
What is Public Relations evaluation?
Public Relations evaluation examines Public Relations objectives,
strategies and tactics. Its primary purpose is to determine to what extent the
objectives are being achieved. It does this by:
a) Gathering information about the targeted publics and their opinions,
attitudes and behaviours
b) Describing Public Relations activities and their impact on sales and
profits
c) Exploring opportunities and alternatives for improving the public
relations strategies and tactics
d) Identifying the strengths and weaknesses in ongoing public relations
activities
e) Providing a database of measurements so comparisons can be made
over time.
There are many varied reasons PROs will want to evaluate their PR
strategies:
i. To determine if the strategy is working (worked) as intended.
ii. To determine if the strategy is meeting (met) stated goals and
objectives.
iii. To measure the cost of efforts in relationship to benefits.
iv. To monitor progress in strategy implementation and make
improvements where needed.

92
v. To inform the organisation about the successes and challenges in
implementation.
vi. To fulfil funding or other supporting agency requirements.
Steps of Evaluation
Step 1: Determine who your key stakeholders are and get their involvement
in the evaluation process.
Step 2: Describe the strategy you want to evaluate.
Step 3: Design your evaluation plan and develop an action plan to carry it
out.
Step 4: Obtain the data you need to answer your evaluation questions.
Step 5: Analyse your data and report your findings.
OVERALL EVALUATION OF THE STRATEGIC PLAN
1. Program evaluation is the systematic measurement of the outcomes of
a project, program or campaign, based on the extent to which stated
objectives were achieved. As part of the strategic planning process,
establishing appropriate and practical evaluation methods wraps up all the
previous plans, ideas and recommendations.
Research Design: What to Evaluate
You’ve heard the phrase “starting off on the right foot.” In precision
marching, the first step is the most important, because it sets up the pattern
for the rest of the modulation. The same is true in putting together an
effective research program. Starting off on the right foot means setting out
to answer the appropriate questions.

93
The plan for program evaluation is called the research design. It outlines the
criteria for judging what is effective. The research design considers several
issues: the criteria to be used to gauge success, timing of the evaluation and
specific ways to measure each of the levels of objectives (awareness,
acceptance and action). The research design may prescribe the various
evaluation tools, and it should also indicate how the evaluation will be used.
Note that this planning happens before any tactics are implemented.
Although the design of evaluative research focuses on the results of the
program, it is developed as part of the initial planning. It points to how
evaluation will be conducted at the appropriate times.
Design Questions
As you design an effective program for evaluation research, ask yourself the
following questions:
1. On what criteria should the program be judged?
2. What information is needed?
3. What standards of accuracy and reliability are needed for this
information?
Next, focus some attention on the source of the information needed:
A. Who has this information?
B. How can this information be obtained from them?
Phase Four
Finally, consider how the information will be used:

94
a) Who will receive the final evaluation, and what will they do with the
information?
b) How willing and able are decision makers to receive less-than-fully
positive evaluations?
c) Besides decision makers, who else would have an interest in the
evaluation?
Remember that research design is always a trade-off between the perfect and
the practical. Strategic planners must make choices about the importance of
the program, the accuracy and reliability of the information to be received,
and the needed resources
(Time, personnel, financial and so on)
Evaluation Criteria
Before you develop specific evaluation techniques, consider first the criteria
on which you will judge something to be effective. What yardsticks should
you use? The appropriate standards vary with the objectives and the tactics,
but here are a few general guidelines.
Evaluation criteria should be;
(1) Useful to the organization by being clearly linked with the established
objectives
(2) Realistic, feasible and appropriate as to cost, time or other resources
(3) Ethical and socially responsible
(4) Credible, with accurate data
(5) Presented in a timely manner.

95
2. EVALUATIVE RESEARCH
Through a series of interviews with Public Relations practitioners and
corporate executives, one researcher has identified what may be a hopeful
trend in public relations evaluation research. Linda Childers Hon (1998)
reported several interesting findings:
I. Practitioners seem to be moving toward more systematic Public
Relations programming.
II. Both practitioners and CEOs have long-range plans to build more
formal evaluation into their Public Relations efforts.
III. Practitioners are trying to educate CEOs and others in their
organizations of the importance of Public Relations measurement.
IV. Understanding is growing among both practitioners and executives
of how Public Relations feeds into the strategic goals of
organizations.
V. Junior practitioners, who are relatively new to the field of public
relations, are more likely than veteran practitioners to be integrating
evaluation into their Public Relations programming.
Public Relations evaluation, meanwhile, may measure exposure, but it goes
further: profiling audiences, tracking attitude change and assessing impact
in terms of behavioural outcomes.
A. Timing: When to Evaluate
There are three stages in the process or program evaluation: implementation
reports, progress reports and final evaluation. Each is different; each is
important.

96
B. Implementation Report
The first level of evaluation is to track the implementation of each tactic,
making sure that it is proceeding according to plan. This implementation
report documents how the program tactics were carried out. In it, include a
schedule of progress to date toward implementing each tactic, as well as any
work remaining. Identify any gaps, defects or potential delays that could
hurt the plan. Note any difficulties encountered and how they were (or might
be) resolved. Discuss the efficiency with which the tactics were set in
motion.
Additionally, note the name of the person or group responsible for each
tactic, as well as other personnel resources such as staff, freelancers, and
consultants and so on. It might also be useful to include budgetary
information; such as how much money has been spent or committed thus
far.
C. Progress Report
It is important to monitor progress at various key points as the tactics are
being implemented. Progress reports are preliminary evaluations, on which
planners can make strategic modifications as they further implement the
program. Such midcourse corrections can keep the project functioning at
peak efficiency. In this way, the plan is used as a written guideline rather
than a rigid rulebook.
You can use information gathered during the course of the project to update
strategy and tactics. This type of in process evaluation is important for
Public Relations and marketing. After a pilot project and following each
significant phase within a program, evaluate whether the program is

97
unfolding as it was planned to do. Ask questions: Are the messages being
disseminated as expected? Are they being understood? Are people
responding as expected? If the answers turn out to be no, there is still time
to make adjustments before the rest of the program is implemented.
This kind of evaluation allows a Public Relations Strategy to be a living
document that enhances the atmosphere of open communication. It allows
the planning organization to be impacted by its environment and by its
publics.
D. Final Evaluation
Final reports, sometimes called summative reports, review the whole of the
program.
They measure impact and outcome for the various tactics. The final
evaluation gauges how well the tactics achieved what they set out to achieve,
namely the various objectives.
E. Methodology: How to Evaluate
In this section we will discuss five levels of evaluation: judgmental
assessments; evaluation of communication outputs; and evaluation of
awareness, acceptance and action, respectively.
F. Judgmental Assessments
Judgmental assessments are evaluations made on guesses and experience.
This type of informal feedback is common in Public Relations and
marketing communication. It is the kind of research that everybody seems
to do, because it comes naturally. Judgmental assessment relies on personal
and subjective observations such as the following:

98
“The boss liked it”; “The client asked us to continue the project”;
“Everybody said this was a success”; “The customers seem happy”; “Hey,
we won an award for this project.”
Judgmental assessments are based on personal observations, and that can be
both their strength and their limitation. Some judgmental evaluations,
though informal, can be very helpful to an organization. For example, the
assessment by outside experts, perhaps a Public Relations colleague in
another organization, might offer an excellent analysis of the program.
G. Evaluation of Communication Outputs
Outputs evaluation is a measure of communication products and their
distribution. It focuses on the development and presentation of a message,
specifically its production and dissemination and the calculation of its cost
and advertising equivalency. These may be necessary tasks to do, but they
really are not effective measurement tools.
a) Message Production- Several techniques of evaluation research deal
simply with whether the message is produced. For example, count the
number of news releases written, brochures printed or pages formatted
for a Web site. Measurement of message production simply quantifies
the work output of a Public Relations office.
While it may be useful for a measure of individual job performance, don’t
be deluded into thinking that it is a measure of program effectiveness.
b) Message Distribution-Another approach to awareness evaluation
focuses not merely on the production of messages but rather on their
distribution. In this category, the evaluator focuses on media contacts
and asks how many of the news releases written were actually mailed

99
or faxed, or how many new pages were uploaded to the Website.
Measuring message dissemination tells what an organization did to
spread the message, but it doesn’t measure its effectiveness or its
impact.
c) Message Cost- Another type of measurement deals with the cost of
messages. This approach analyses how much money an organization
spent to present its message. For paid media such as brochures or
advertisements, the organization simply divides the cost of the
communication vehicle by the number of times the message was
reproduced.
d) Advertising Equivalency-A common but generally inappropriate
evaluation technique is related to the message cost. Advertising
equivalency means treating a non-advertising item as if it were an
advert.
Despite the obvious misconception that underlies advertising
equivalency, it’s a myth that doesn’t want to go away. Some Public
Relations agencies even have devised formulas to impress their clients.
For example, they calculate the value of publicity as being four times the
cost of advertising or 10 times. Such arbitrary weighting schemes are all
smoke and mirrors.
H. Evaluation of Awareness Objectives
The methods associated with outputs evaluation focus on documenting
communication activity. But it is even more important to demonstrate the
value that communication tactics offer an organization, specifically their
effectiveness in achieving awareness, attitude and action objectives. The

100
first level of Public Relations objectives, awareness, provides an important
category of evaluation research. Awareness evaluation focuses on the
content of the message.
It considers how many people were exposed to the message, how easy the
message is to understand and how much of the message is remembered.
Readability Measures- Another way to evaluate awareness deals with
comprehension how easy a message is to understand. One of the first steps
in developing a Public Relations plan is to identify and analyse the Publics
to be addressed.
I. Evaluation of Acceptance Objectives
A major shortcoming of all the message-based evaluation techniques noted
above is that they do not address the consequence of the Public Relations
tactics. Instead, they simply gauge the existence of the tactics. At best,
message-based evaluation techniques can deal with the level of awareness
surrounding a Public Relations message.
A more effective area of evaluation, however, is based on levels of
acceptance and action. Objectives in the Strategy phase note the desired
impact on interest and attitudes (acceptance) and on opinion and behaviour
(action).
Here are a couple of examples of how to evaluate acceptance-level
objectives.
Acceptance objective: To enhance favourable employee attitudes toward a
client’s company.

101
Possible evaluation techniques: Compare retention figures from before
and after the tactic was implemented; record oral and written comments
given to the human resource department of the company; solicit anecdotal
input from managers and supervisors; survey employees about their
attitudes and try to learn what they have been telling family and friends
about working for the company.
Acceptance objective: To increase employee affirmation, the company
needs to change employee benefits.
Possible evaluation techniques: Record immediate anecdotal feedback
after the announcement is made; conduct a survey within two days of the
announcement; after two weeks, invite employee feedback through response
cards provided in pay envelopes.
J. Evaluation of Action Objectives
The ultimate objectives for most public relations activities should focus on
bottom-line issues for an organization, primarily the action sought from the
key publics. In this evaluation phase of the planning process, careful
consideration should be given to ways to measure these action objectives.
a) Audience Participation-
Figures on the number of people who actively responded to the message
generally are easy to obtain. Attendance figures are effective measures when
attendance itself is the desired objective, as may be the case with concerts
and exhibitions, athletic competitions, benefit fund-raising events and so on.
Implicit in these attendance figures also is a measure of the effectiveness of
publicity and promotion that preceded the events.

102
However, attendance figures can be misused if the presumption is made that
attendance at some information-sharing session necessarily equates with
action impact.
People heard the speech and the message was presented, but desired action
is not guaranteed. Therefore, be careful how attendance figures are
interpreted and what value is placed on them.
b) Direct Observation.
Sometimes the simplest way to measure the effectiveness of action
objectives is to look around. In some instances, the action objective deals
with the general outcome rather than with any quantification. Some
evaluation research calls for strategic and creative thinking. Individual
behaviours that may not be easily observable are more difficult to measure.
c) Data Analysis
Having gathered the data through a variety of means, it is now time to
analyse it carefully.
Match the observed and reported results with the expectations outlined in
your statement of objectives. If the program failed to meet its objectives, do
some further analysis. Try to learn if the shortfall was because of a flawed
strategy that undergirded the program or because the tactics were not
implemented as effectively as they might have been. Consider also if there
might be a flaw in the evaluation techniques used to gather the data.
If evaluation of the program is particularly important, ask an outside auditor
to review the data. For some formal presentations of research findings, in
order to enhance credibility, an organization may ask an outside expert or a

103
panel of stakeholders to attest to the validity of the tools used in the
evaluation research.
d) Evaluation Reports
After the evaluation is completed and the information gathered and
analysed, make sure it is presented in a form that is understandable and
accessible to decision makers within the organization. They usually are busy
executives and managers with global but not necessarily specific
understandings of the issue.
They may not have a high level of insight or information about the program,
so be careful not to obscure evaluation findings in the final report. Instead,
be very clear, draw obvious conclusions and highlight the most important
data.
If the decision makers have been involved in establishing the objectives of
the program, they probably will be disposed to using the evaluation findings.
Structure of the Evaluation Report
There is much variety within evaluation reports, which can be of several
types. These may be presented separately or merged into a single report. The
report itself can take the form of a formal document, an oral presentation or
a meeting agenda item.
Evaluation reports should be carefully crafted to clearly link the
expectations outlined in the objectives with the outcomes. Here are several
elements to include. Note how these outcomes were measured, discuss the
degree to which they achieved the objectives, and note the significance of
this achievement (or lack of it). Finally, make clear recommendations
closely linked with the data. For reports of major significance, visual

104
elements such as photographs, tables and charts can enhance the
understanding of readers and listeners.
Evaluation reports sometimes become the basis of a news release or even a
news conference if the topic under review is one that is particularly
newsworthy. Any evaluation report longer than five pages should be
preceded by an executive summary that provides an overview of the findings
and a simplified set of recommendations.
Based on qualitative interview research with both Public Relations
practitioners and their CEOs, Linda Childers Hon (1997) reported six such
values that effective Public Relations brings to organizations or to the clients
of a consultant or agency.
Keep these in mind as you complete your evaluation and present it to
your client or organization.
1. Effective Public Relations helps organizations survive, by reversing
negative opinions, promoting awareness of organizational benefits to the
community and effecting balanced media coverage.
2. Effective Public Relations helps organizations make money, by
generating publicity about products and services as well as the
organization’s plans and accomplishments; attracting new customers,
volunteers, donors and stockholders; and improving employee performance
and productivity.
3. Effective Public Relations helps other organizational functions make
money, by creating an environment of understanding and goodwill,
influencing supportive legislation and enhancing fundraising efforts.

105
4. Effective Public Relations helps organizations save money, by
inducing favourable legislation, retaining members and minimizing
negative publicity during crisis incidents.
5. Effective Public Relations helps organization weaken opposition, by
generating favourable public opinion and obtaining cooperation from
governmental and other organizations.
6. Effective Public Relations helps organizations save lives, through
social goals such as advancing highway safety, medical care and research,
and so on.
Evaluation and measurement should not take place only at the end of your
efforts. You should be monitoring the organisation constantly to determine
whether it’s in the right direction or not. Evaluation is before and after the
PR strategy.

106
MODELS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS STRATEGY
Most textbooks dealing with Public Relations encourage a four-phase
process. Some use the RACE acronym; articulated by John Marston (1963)
in The Nature of Public Relations.
1. Research
2. Action
3. Communication
4. Evaluation
In Public Relations Cases, Jerry Hendrix (2000) used the acronym ROPE;
a) Research
b) Objectives
c) Programming
d) Evaluation
In Public Relations Campaign Strategies, Robert Kendall (1992) offered
another formula—RAISE
1) Research
2) Adaptation
3) Implementation strategy
4) Evaluation
Most Public Relations textbooks, however, simply refer to a four-stage
process without constraining it with an acronym.
Marketing communication books also present a step-by-step process, but
with little consistency about the number of steps involved. While acronyms
can be useful mnemonic devices, they can be too confining. The four stages
of Public Relations planning are more complex than the acronyms indicate.

107
Strategic Planning for Public Relations by Ronald D. Smith 2002 offers a
model that seems a bit more logical. The steps are grouped into four phases
that are both descriptive and accurate, but their names don’t lend themselves
to an acronym.
This model is called “the Nine Steps of Strategic Public Relations”.
Phase One: Formative Research
Step 1: Analysing the Situation
Step 2: Analysing the Organization
Step 3: Analysing the Publics
Phase Two: Strategy
Step 4: Establishing Goals and Objectives
Step 5: Formulating Action and Response Strategies
Step 6: Using Effective Communication
Phase Three: Tactics
Step 7: Choosing Communication Tactics
Step 8: Implementing the Strategic Plan
Phase Four: Evaluative Research
Step 9: Evaluating the Strategic Plan
Grunig’s “Behavioural Molecule” further broke the planning steps
into:
1) detecting a problem

108
2) constructing a possible solution
3) defining alternatives
4) selecting the best course of action
5) confirming the choice by pre-testing
6) Behaving by enacting a program, and then returning to the
process of detecting whether the program met the desired
objectives.
In conclusion, it is not easy to apply the above knowledge in the first trial
and you get good results, so my advice is, keep it in mind that “in the ashes
of failure is where seeds of success germinate from”, therefore, this is a
repetitive process. Like world’s motivational speaker Les Brown says
“Don’t give up until you win”
“Behind a successful professional, there is an effective strategic plan”
MAY THE LORD BLESS YOU

109
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Newsom, D. Turk, J. V., & Kruckeberg D. (1999). This is PR: The realities
of public relations (7th Ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Ostrowski, H. (1999). Moving the measurement needle, The Public
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Schultz, D. E., Tannenbaum, S. I., & Lauterborn, R. F. (1993). Integrated
marketing communications:
Pulling it together and making it work. Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Business.
Seitel, F. P. (1998). The practice of public relations (7th Ed) Upper Saddle
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Simon, R. & Zappala, J. (1996), the public relations workbook: Writing and
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Sirgy, M. J. (1998). Integrated marketing communications: A systems
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Wilcox, D. L., Ault, P. H., Agee, W. K. & Cameron, G. T. (2000). Public
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Wilson, L. (2000). Strategic program planning for effective public relations
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Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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