Download to read offline
![program” (2002, p. 4). Gronstedt (1997) says that research gives the hard data necessary to
provide value to the organization, and helps provide information to make decisions that have real
impact. Research is critical to public relations management because it focuses the practitioner on
goals, objectives and results, not on outputs, and creates a systematic method of doing so.
Research is also fundamental to several groundbreaking models of public relations practice,
including the open systems model and the two-way symmetrical model. Research uncovers
potential areas of concern so that the organization can build relationships, develop programs and
take corrective action to prevent small problems from becoming major issues (Broom & Dozier,
1990; Cutlip, Center, & Broom, 2000). The two-way symmetrical model of communication, first
proposed by James E. Grunig, emphasizes that the organization and its publics should be
engaged in an ongoing dialog to build mutually beneficial relationships. Part of that dialog
includes the use of research. “With the two-way symmetrical model, practitioners use research
and dialog to bring about symbiotic changes in the ideas, attitudes and behaviors of both the
organization and its publics” (Grunig, Grunig, & Dozier, 2002, p. 308).
In addition, Public relations research provides the foundation for almost everything
communicators do, including identifying and understanding key publics, framing important
issues, developing public relations and organizational strategy, and measuring results (Gronstedt,
1997). It can also be used to gain publicity. Research helps identify the existing knowledge,
predisposition or behaviors of key publics, their preferred information sources, and how best to
reach them. Grunig et al. (2002) found that that research plays a crucial role in how organizations
with excellent public relations departments respond to key publics such as activists. “Excellent
public relations departments scan the environment [through research] and continuously bring the
voices of publics, especially activist publics, into decision making” (p. 27). Excellent
departments also use research to plan and evaluate their communication programs.
To sum up research has great role for public relations:
Planning or developing new public relations program.
Monitor and track public relations activity.
Measuring or evaluating outcomes.
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![2012,fromBusinessDictionary.comwebsite:http://www.businessdictionary.com/
definition/ organization.html
“a Body of individuals working under a defined system of rules, assignments
procedures, and relationships designed to achieve identifiable objectives and goals.”
Greenwald, H. P. (2008). Organizations: Management without control. Los Angeles,
CA: Sage, pg. 6.
2. Organizational Behavior Definitions
“a social unit within which people have achieved somewhat stable relations (not
necessarily face-to-face) among themselves in order to facilitate obtaining a set of
objectives or goals. Litterer, J. A. (1963). Organizations: Structured behavior. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, pg. 5.
“an organization is a complex system, which includes as subsystems: (1) management, to
interrelate and integrate through appropriate linking processes all the elements of the
system in a manner designed to achieve the organizational objectives, and (2) a sufficient
number of people so that constant face-to-face interaction is impossible.” Lundgren, E. F.
(1974). Organizational management: Systems and process. San Francisco: Canfield Press,
pg. 7.
3. Industrial/Organizational Psychology Definition
“work consists of patterned human behavior and the ‘equipment’ consists of the human
beings. “Katz, D., & Kahn, R. L. (1978).
“lively sets of interrelated systems [task, structure, technology, people, and the
environment] designed to perform complicated tasks. Levitt, H. J. (1972). Managerial
4. Organizational Communication Definitions
“social collectives in which people develop ritualized patterns of interaction in an attempt
to coordinate their activities and efforts in the ongoing accomplishment of personal and
group goals.”Kreps, G. L. (1986). Organizational communication. New York: Longman,
pg. 5.
“including five critical features namely, the existence of a social collectivity,
organizational and individual goals, coordinated activity, organizational structure, and the
embedding of the organization with an environment of other organizations. “Miller, K.
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- 1. Introduction to PR Introductionto Public Relations Chapter One 1.1 What is Public Relations As the term, public relations, has come to mean many things to many people, creating a specific definition is hard. Some scholars consider it as a philosophical and moral concept. Others define it by looking at what public relations do in practice. The basic purpose of public relations is, more or less the same in all sectors- governments, public and private concerns, and other institutions. Generally speaking, public relations practitioners operate on two distinct levels: as advisers to their clients or to an organization ‘s top managements and as technicians who produce and disseminate messages in multiple media channels. There are two reasons why it is hard to formulate a public relations definition that brings all public relations scholars into agreement. The first one is because public relations ‘concept is a complex and hybrid subject. It draws on theories and practices from many different fields such as management, communications and psychology. Page 1 of 66
- 2. Many scholars havetried to define public relations by some of its most visible techniques and tactics, such as publicity in a newspaper, a television interview with an organization ‘s spokesperson, or the appearance of a celebrity at a special event. These people failed to understand that public relation is a process involving many subtle and far reaching aspects. It includes research and analysis, policy formation, programming, communications and feedback from numerous publics. The second reason is the definition of public relations changes as the society, politics, market, etc. of and a particular country changes. This shows the definition of public relations is bound to the moment of thought and action of the society in which the PR practitioner does his (her) work. Without a doubt, then, a discussion of PR is necessarily a discussion of the society or societies in which it is practiced. Having said this, there are various general definitions offered by different professional associations and individuals. Some of them are: “Public Relations is the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish and Maintain mutual understanding between on organization and its publics.” Institute of Public Relations, USA “Public Relations are the attempt by information persuasion and adjustment to engineer public support for an activity, cause, movement or institution.” Edward L. Bernays “Public Relations are a combination of philosophy, sociology, economics, language, psychology, journalism, communication and other knowledge into a system of human understanding." Herbert M. Baus Former President of the American Pubic Relation Association “The Management function which gives the same organized and careful attention to the asset of goodwill as is given to any other major asset of business.” - John W. Hill "Public Relations is distinctive management function which helps establish and maintain mutual lines of communication, understanding, acceptance and cooperation between an organization and its publics; involves the management of problems or issues; helps management to keep informed on and responsive to public opinion; defines and emphasizes the responsibility of management to serve the public interest; helps management keep abreast of and effectively utilize change, serving as an early warning system to help anticipate trends; and uses research and sound and ethical communication as its principal tools." Rex F. Harlow. Page 2 of 66
- 3. Overall, at itssimplest form public relations is a management function or a way to approach the way in which an organization wants to relate to its many publics. It involves the cultivation of favorable relations for organizations and products with its key publics through the use of a variety of communications channels and tools. It is as much a specific discipline with its own body of knowledge and theories. Generally Public relations has defined as: Persuasive communication designed to influence specific publics. The winning of public acceptance by acceptable performance. Doing good and getting credit for it (Performance then Recognition) The science and practice of applying credible media for favorable communication. Honest communication for credibility Openness and consistency of actions for confidence Fairness of actions for reciprocity and good will Continuous two-way communication to prevent alienation and build relationships Environmental research and evaluation to determine the actions or adjustments needed for social harmony. 1.2 Function of public relations Public relations have so many function but the main functions are: Public Relations are establishing the relationship among the two groups (organization and public). Art or Science of developing reciprocal understanding and goodwill. It analyses the public perception & attitude, identifies the organization policy with Public interest and then executes the programmes for communication with the public. 1.3 Principle of public relations The public relations industry has evolved greatly since it first began in the early 1800s. In fact, it has dramatically changed even in the last decade with the introduction and expansive growth of the social media. These are principles that have proved to be true over and over again in the public relations industry and are adhered to by PR professionals all over the world. These principles are based on the idea that the purpose of public relations is to “identify, establish, and maintain mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and its various publics” a Page 3 of 66
- 4. classic definition ofthe profession developed by Cutlip, Center, and Broom. All of the following principles are designed to achieve that objective. Principle 1: Organizations exist only by public consent. This is one of the oldest principles in the public relations profession. The word “consent” here means “agreement” or “permission.” But in what way does the public give its “consent” for an organization to exist? If the organization is a “for-profit” company, its existence rests upon whether the public buys its product or services. Without this consumer public, that organization would not exist. If it’s a “not-for-profit” organization, its existence is dependent upon people giving their time (volunteering) or money (donations). Without these things, this organization would not exist. More broadly, though, an organization’s existence is dependent on a wide variety of publics many of whom will never buy the product or donate money. Principle 2: Mutually beneficial relationships require two-way communication. As we saw in the previous lecture, the public relations profession has evolved from one-way communication to two-way communication. With the possible exception of the government, which practices the public information model, most PR professionals practice two-way communication. What this simply means is that in addition to sending messages to them publics, organizations receive them as well. Today, organizations must listen to their stakeholders/publics especially given the prevalence of social media. There needs to be a dialogue, not a monologue. Additionally, organizations must demonstrate they have heard their publics by adjusting policies and products to their publics’ needs and wants as much as possible. If the goal is to build and sustain mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and its various publics, two- way symmetric (balanced) communication must be practiced. Principle 3: Act, then communicate. The key idea here is that you cannot talk your way out of something you behaved your way into. Americans have a saying: “Talk is cheap.” Public relations practitioners have the reputation of talking; publics need to see action. Principle 4: Clarity is more important than cleverness. Clear communication is difficult. Don’t lose your message by trying to be clever. If your goal is to build relationships, then clear communication is essential. There is a lot of focus today about the channels of communication from the changing digital land scape Selecting the right channel to reach your audiences is critical. The wrong channel ensures that your message will be not be Page 4 of 66
- 5. delivered. But usingthe right channel does not necessarily mean communication will take place; it only means the message was received. In order for a message to be acted upon, it needs to gain the attention of the audience, be understood, and clearly address the audience’s needs and wants. Principle 5: Activity does not equal results. There is a difference between production and outcome, between activities and results. Your clients or bosses will expect that your public relations strategies and tactics will “move the needle.” In other words, something has to happen as a result of your public relations efforts. The public relations situation needs to change. More than ever before, organizations are seeking even demanding and tangible ROI (return on investment). They want to know if they spend money and resources on public relations that will yield a return in the form of better stakeholder relationships, less opposition, stronger support, improved reputation, positive attitudes, greater cooperation, more customers buying the product or using the service. Because there is more client demand to demonstrate results, measurement tools are becoming increasingly sophisticated Principle 6: Never refuse an opportunity to tell your side of the story. This is one of the most common public relations errors. If you don’t tell your side of the story, someone else will: a former (angry) employee, competitor, victim, or sour neighbor. If the media is doing a story, they need a quote. Let it be from you, and not from of these people. When the news is bad, many organizations refuse to talk to the media. Instead, they say, “no comment.” To the public, however, “no comment” means “we’re guilty.” It also means “we’re uncooperative.” By telling your side of the story (especially in a bad situation), the public relations professional can help “frame” the story in the best possible light without, of course, making a bad situation look better than it is (i.e., spin). But, the fact is, there are usually multiple “frames” that can be legitimately applied to the same situation. The media usually will pick the most dramatic frame because it makes for a better story. Your job as the PR professional is to make sure the frame is fair and accurate and also to suggest another frame, if necessary, that more accurately reflects the reality of the situation. All of this requires that the organization cooperates and works with the media to help them get a story. Understanding a journalist’s job from what they need to when they need it is fundamental to establishing constructive media relationships. Principle 7: Manage expectations. Page 5 of 66
- 6. The key tofostering healthy relationships with all stakeholders is managing expectations. For example, if a company exaggerates product claims, consumers will be disappointed when the product falls short. Likewise, when PR practitioners hype (exaggerate) an event, attendees will be upset when the reality doesn’t match the rhetoric. Same is true about pitching a story to the media. Journalists will stop using you as a news source if you consistently offer “fluff” stories with little or exaggerated substance. This principle is also true, by the way, in maintaining positive relationships between PR practitioners and their clients. Your clients (and bosses) need to know what public relations can do, and what it cannot do. For example, if an organization has a negative reputation in the eyes of its publics, PR professionals cannot change a negative into a positive overnight. And ethical practitioners aware of long-term public relations goals will not put a clean shirt on a dirty body. Principle 8: Practice public relations proactively, whenever possible. According to the freedictionary.com, “proactive” means “controlling a situation by causing something to happen rather than waiting to respond to it after it happens.” Public relations are more effective if it is planned, intentional, and controlled. Reactive public relations put an organization on the defensive and creates an environment ripe for spin. Proactive public relations require that organizations are continually monitoring various environments, assessing relationships, and identifying and tracking issues that may affect the organization. In terms of managing relationships, organizations should be continually filling the “reservoir of goodwill” or “making deposits into the emotional bank account.” Both of these metaphors speak to the idea of proactively and intentionally managing relationships. If the reservoir of goodwill is filled, there will be something left in times of drought (a crisis with that particular stakeholder or stakeholders). Likewise, with the emotional bank account. If it’s full, you’ll have something left even if there’s a big withdrawal (i.e., a crisis). Principle 9: Be a bridge, not a barrier. There are at least two ways to practice public relations – and they are the polar opposites of each other. One way to practice PR is to be a barrier that protects an organization from its publics. This kind of PR uses one-way communication, doesn’t listen to stakeholders in any meaningful way, ignores the media, and uses spin to help an organization not take appropriate responsibility. The problem is, if the organization wants to maintain relationships with its stakeholders, “barrier” public relations doesn’t work at least in the long term. Page 6 of 66
- 7. A much moreeffective (and ethical) way to practice public relations is to be a bridge that connects an organization to its publics. Practitioners who see themselves as bridges use two-way communication with the organization’s stakeholders, conduct transparent dialogue through the social media, and respond affirmatively to journalists’ needs. The world doesn’t need any more spin doctors. But it does need bridge builders who can foster dialogue, create mutual understanding, and build cooperative, mutually beneficial relationships. Page 7 of 66
- 8. 1.4 Origin andHistory of Public Relations Some scholars say public relations began in America in the late 18th & 19th century when Railroad companies promoted the American West Term “public relations” first used. Thomas Jefferson (1807) used the phrase "Public relations" in the place of "State of thought" while writing his seventh address to the US Congress. In India, Great Indian Peninsular Railway Company Limited (GIP Railways) carried on publicity in Public Relations campaign in England for promote tourism to India through mass media and pamphlets. During the time of First World War a central publicity board was set up at Bombay (now Mumbai) for disseminating war news to the public and press. After Second World War the Public Relations activity gained importance both privates as well as Government started Public Relations campaigns. Generally, it can be said the practices of PR has started during early times. The practice of persuasion is a skill that started long ago. Aristotle one of the ancient Greece philosopher wrote rhetoric- meaning to convince people. But PR, as you know it today, is a 20th century phenomenon. PR practitioners today not only persuade but also inform, create ideas and make things happen. One of the earliest PR practitioners is Edward L. Bernays. started his career of PR in 1920s, he then retired in 1962. He wrote the first book, Crystallizing Public Opinion, in 1923. This book laid down the principles and ethics by which PR should be governed. He was invited to start the first PR education course at New York University in 1924. Bernays ‘understanding of the psychology of persuasive communication may well have been influenced by his uncle Sigmund Freud. Besides, his wife and other practitioners contributed for the development of the profession. Ivy Lee is the man who convinced America that Rockefellers were not heartless "Scrooges" and pushed many other big businesses onto the American people. Lee was never loved by America, however. Besides having his name kicked around Congress for his supposed muckraking, Lee also accidentally aligned himself with Germany during the time after World War I. His true goal was to end the worldwide depression through an end of reparations and war debt payments from Germany. However, this correlated his name to the likes of Hitler and caused the latter part of his life to be shadowed by this misunderstanding. Carl Byoir seemed destined for greatness. In 1917, Byoir was asked to join the World War I Committee on Public Communication. It was there that he made his greatest contribution to the war effort. Page 8 of 66
- 9. In the pastpublic relations exhausted all available outlets for disseminating information and as designs grew more complex and inventions became more common public relations was strengthened. The telephone, television and radio, all helped foster the public relations industry and facilitate its expansion. Over the last two decades, the public relations industry has been generously enhanced by the advent of more convenient technology. Agencies are now able to utilize satellites to transmit information much faster and more efficiently. In addition to being able to reach multitudes of people almost effortlessly, software and computing techniques are making the transmissions more professional and persuasive with graphics and designs. The common-place of computers has also fueled the explosion of public relations and would seem to dictate that the industry could only be headed upward. Today, public relations have developed into a multi-million-dollar industry. Most modern developments in public relations are linked with political reform movements, as public relations is an important part of politics, playing a major part in who becomes elected and what laws are passed. Politicians use public relations to keep themselves in good standing with the public, which is very necessary for their job. What began as mere publicity has grown to include many other uses, from interpreting public opinion and its impact on an organization to researching ways of helping a business to maintain its goals. 1.5 Feature / Characteristics of public relations Public relations have different features. Some of the are: It secures cooperation of the public. PR Facilitate successful relations with the public. Satisfying different groups. Engage in dialogue. Ongoing activity Perform wide range of activity PR is management function In addition to the above features public relations is described by the following features: Deliberate: Public relations activity is intentional. It is designed to influence, gain understanding, provide information, and obtain feedback (reaction from those affected by the activity). Page 9 of 66
- 10. Planned: Publicrelation activity is organized. Solutions to problems are discovered and logistics are thought out, with the activity taking place over a period of time. It is systematic, requiring research and analysis. Performance: Effective public relations are based on actual policies and performance. No amount of public relations will generate good will and support if the organization is unresponsive to community concerns. Public Interest: The rationale for any public relations activity is to serve the public interest, and not simply to achieve benefits for the organization. Ideally, public relations activity is mutually beneficial to the organization and the public; it is the alignment of the organizations self-interests with the publics concerns and interests. Two-way Communication: Dictionary definitions often give the impression that public relations consists only of the dissemination of informational materials. It is equally important, however, that the definition include feedback from audiences. The ability to listen is an essential part of communication expertise. 1.6 Activities/ Element of public relations Community relation: a public relations functions consisting of an organizations planned, active and continuing participation with and within a community to maintain and enhance its environment to the benefit of both the organizations and the community. This can involve partnerships, volunteer activities, philanthropic contribution and public participation. Employ relation: dealing and communicating with employees of an organization. This can include team building and employee empowerment. Government relations: communicating with legislatures and government agencies on behalf of an organization. Financial relation: communicating with firms and interest groups within the organizations industry in order to attract investor and raising fund. Media relations: dealing and communicating with news media when seeking publicity or respond to reporter’s question. It also involves setting up and maintaining a professional and mutually beneficial working relationship with newsgatherers and gatekeepers in part by Becoming known as a credible source as a provider of factual, expert information whether or not that information results in media coverage. Page 10 of 66
- 11. Public affairs: dealingand communicating with government and groups with regard to societal or public policies, action and legislation. Unlike government relations, where the practitioner works strictly on behalf of an organization, public affairs also is concerned with the effect of public policies, action and legislation on its public. Issue management: monitoring positive and negative issues within an organization and the public. For example: monitoring social, economic, political and technological environments. Anticipates, identifies evaluates and responds to public policy issues. Research: The importance of research to public relations can be traced through its basic use in public relations the importance practitioners place on research, and research ‘s growing importance in training public relations practitioners. Crisis management: dealing and communicating with the public and organization when there is problem or emergency. Protects and defends an individual, company or organization facing a public challenge to its reputation. Publicity is disseminating planned message to the public through appropriate media. it is an integral part of any organization. Without the proper publicity the organization’s goals – to raise money, to attract new members or to provide a program or service – will not be met. For your organization’s publicity to bring results, careful thought and planning should be put into your campaign. Etc. 1.7 Roles and Responsibilities of PR Officer Public relations people work for all kinds of organizations from hospitals, schools, government, sports teams, theaters, movie stars, television stations corporations, and not-for-profits like the ‖ Red Cross Association of Ethiopia, Tigray Development Association (TDA), even churches and mosques almost any kind of organization you can imagine! Their job is: To let people, know about their organization ‘s purposes and needs. To listen to what people think about their organization. To build good working relationships with groups of people who affect or are affected by their organization. To help their organization establish and maintain a good reputation that is based on good performance. Page 11 of 66
- 12. Some public relationsprofessionals are part of the management team that makes major administrative decisions about how the organization will operate, what it will do, how it will treat the people and groups of people who affect or are affected by it, and how it will act in the environment. Other public relations professionals are technical experts who plan, organize, and produce a wide variety of materials, videos, web sites, publications, special events, meetings, and other activities designed to help them communicate to and develop relationships with a variety of different groups of people, which they call publics. As a result, a public relations thinking is factored into management decision making. The major responsibilities of a public relations practitioner can be summarized as follows: Advise management on different issues Participate on policy decisions Plan public relations programs Attend conferences and deliver speeches Write speeches to others Obtain speakers for organizational meetings Organize news conferences Talk to editors and reporters Produce media such as, press releases, leaflets, booklets, magazines, newsletters, feature articles, etc. for employees and the external public Plan the launch of new products and services Act as the organization ‘s spokesperson 1.8 What makes a good PR practitioner? Necessary qualities The demands of PR consultants or PR managers are very great. Consequently, the PR man or woman has to be sufficiently humble and adaptable to be able to accept that in PR one never Page 12 of 66
- 13. stops learning. Thefollowing seven attributes sum up the necessary qualities that a good PR practitioner needs to have, no matter what his or her background may be. a) Ability to get on with all kinds of people; this means understanding, sometimes tolerating people, not flattering them. b) Ability to communicate: that is, ability to explain by means of spoken or written word or by visual device such as photography c) Ability to organize: that calls for patient planning d) Personal integrity in both professional and private life e) Imagination: that is a creative sense, as when designing a house journal, writing a script for a film or videotape, planning campaigns and seeking solutions to problems f) Ability to find out: that is to have ready access to information. The PRO is often expected to be to be an oracle g) Ability to research and evaluate the results of a PR campaign, and learn from these findings 1.9 Public Relations and Journalism Similarities and differences between public relations and Journalism Similarities Writing for mass audiences is a common activity of both public relations practitioners and journalists. In addition, public relations professionals use a number of journalistic techniques to communicate with various publics. This practice has led many people, including former journalists who enter public relations, to wrong conclusion that little difference exists between public relations and journalism. The two fields, however, differ fundamentally in scope, objective, audiences and channels. Differences Public Relations a) Scope Public relations have many components, ranging from counseling to issues management and special events. However, journalistic writing and media relations are the two major elements of journalism. In addition, effective practice of public relations requires strategic thinking, problem solving capability, and other management skills. b) Objectives Page 13 of 66
- 14. Journalists, usually employedby a news organization, are paid to gather and select information for the primary purpose of providing objective news and information. In such a setting, as David Dozier and William Ehling explain, communication activities are an end in themselves. Public relations personnel also gather facts and information, but their objective is different. Communication activity is only a means to an end. Conceptually, the effects achieved by public relations programs include awareness, knowledge, opinion, attitudes, and behavior of those affected by the program. In other words, public relations personnel are not objective reporters, ‖ but rather advocates. c) Audiences Journalists write primarily for one mass audience readers, listeners, or viewers of the medium for which they work. By definition, mass audiences are usually large and ill defined, and they have little in common with each other. In contrast, effective public relations is based on carefully defining an audience and segmenting it into demographic and psychological characteristics. Constant research allows messages to be tailored to audience needs, concerns, and interests. 1.10 work assignment of public relations 1. Writing: News releases, newsletters, correspondence, reports, speeches, booklet texts, radio and television copy, film scripts, trade paper and magazine articles, institutional advertisements, product information, and technical materials. 2. Editing: Special publications, employee newsletters, shareholder reports, and other communications directed to internal and external publics. 3. Media Relations and placement: Contacting news media, magazines, Sunday supplements, free-lance writers, and trade publications with the intent of getting them to publish or broadcast news and features about or organized by the organization. Responding to media requests for information or spokesperson. 4. Special events: Arranging and managing press conferences, convention exhibits, open houses, anniversary celebrations, fund-raising events, special observances, contests, and award programmes. 5. Speaking: Appearing before groups and arranging platforms for others before appropriate audiences by managing a speaker’s bureau. 6. Production: Creating communications using multimedia knowledge and skills; including art, photography, and layout for brochures, booklets, reports, institutional advertisements, and Page 14 of 66
- 15. periodical publications; recordingand editing audio and video tapes; and preparation of audio visual presentations. 7. Research: Gathering intelligence – enabling the organization to plan programmes responsive to its public’s and problem situations, monitoring public relations programme effectiveness during implementation, and evaluating programme impact. 8. Programming and counseling: Determining needs, priorities, goals, publics, objectives, and strategies. Collaborating with management or clients in a problem solving process. 9. Training: Working with executives and other organizational representatives to prepare them for dealing with the media, and for making presentations and other public appearances. In service staff development. 10. Management: Administering the operation of the public relations function personal, budget and programmes. Chapter Two 2. Public Relation and its process 2.1 public relations process Effective public relations are accomplished through a process known as RACE (Research, Action, Communication, Evaluation). This process is used to practice proactive public relations PR that is intentional, planned, and strategic. Research is the first step. Nothing happens before doing research. Research helps determine objectives, messages, strategies and tactics. The first step in research is to clarify the public relations situation. Both the public relations practitioner and the client need to have a clear understanding of the situation before them. Without that, public relations plans are developed that do not accurately address the situation. One of the most important aspects of situational analysis is identifying the stakeholder(s) or public(s) that are most involved in the situation. Since public relations is essentially about identifying, building and sustaining relationships between an organization and its various publics (stakeholders), the situational analysis allows an organization to focus on one (or more) stakeholders where either a problem or opportunity exists. Wilcox says that the process of public relations activity was articulated by Marston in the RACE acronym and consists of four key elements: Research, Action and planning, communication and Evaluation. The process is outlined as follows: Page 15 of 66
- 16. Research- whatis the problem? Action and Planning- What is going to be done about it? Communication- how will the public be told? Evaluation- was the audience reached and what was the effect? Another approach, according to Wilcox, is to think of the process as never -ending cycle in which six components are linked in a chain. 1. Program assessment and adjustment 2. Research and analysis 3. Policy formation 4. Programming 5. Communication 6. Feedback In the conceptualization of public relations as a cyclical process, feedback- or audience response- leads to assessment of the program, which then becomes an essential element in the development of another public relations project. The feedback originates in research and is concluded by evaluation. The process of public relations constitutes both of giving and receiving information. Awareness by practitioners of the cyclical process is a prerequisite for an accurate understanding of public relations. Generally, a PR practitioner has to perform the activity listed here under to accomplish his/her organization ‘s goals through the above public relations process. 1. Identifying existing relationships- in modern society, institutions have many relationships. A college, for example, has relationships with its internal public (students and its stuff), and with its external publics (neighborhood, the community, other collages, local administrators, etc.). Each of these constituencies is called a public- hence the term public relations. 2. Evaluating the relationships- through research, the PR practitioner studies these relationships to determine how well they are working. This evaluation is an ongoing process. A college may have excellent relations with one of its publics one year, but it may not be the same the next year because of various reasons. 3. Design policies to improve the relationships- the job of PR people is to recommend policies to top management to make these relationships work better, not only for the organization but also for the partners in each relationship. Page 16 of 66
- 17. 4. Implement thepolicies- public relations is not a mass medium itself, but PR often uses the media as tools to accomplish its goals. Here is a simple example that illustrates how the PR process works: Suppose you handle public relations for sawula campus. A physics professor discovers a new element that can be used to produce cheap energy. How do you publicize his discovery? First you have to identify your goal. Second you have to craft your message. To do so you have to write a news release describing the significance of the professor ‘s research. You send copies to journalists, scientists and energy experts across the country. Then you schedule a news conference. Your news release might have the following headline Researcher discovers powerful new element . Third, you ‖ should monitor your results. Word travels fast. Newspapers pick up the story and scramble to interview the professor. You prepare further news releases, arrange speeches, even book the professor on a talk show. 2.2 Role of Research in Public Relations Public relations research is a fundamental part of identifying important issues to the organization, developing strategically based public relations programs, and measuring the impact of those programs on the organization. Without public relations research, practitioners are left with little but outputs and hunches to report. Without research, practitioners cannot show how public relations makes a difference. Broom and Dozier (1990) define research as “the controlled, objective, and systematic gathering of information for the purposes of describing and understanding” (p. 4). Research is an integral part of the public relations process. Two steps of the four-step public relations process, developed by Cutlip, Center, and Broom (2000), depend on research: defining the public relations problem or opportunity, and evaluating the program. Similarly, Hendrix’s ROPE model (research, objectives, program, and evaluation) and Marston’s RACE model (research, action, Communication and evaluation). Rely on research for the first and last steps of the public relations process (as cited by stacks, 2002). Cutlip et al. said that research “is the foundation of effective public relations” (2000, p. 343). Stacks said, “Quite simply, without research you cannot demonstrate the efficency of your Page 17 of 66
- 18. program” (2002, p.4). Gronstedt (1997) says that research gives the hard data necessary to provide value to the organization, and helps provide information to make decisions that have real impact. Research is critical to public relations management because it focuses the practitioner on goals, objectives and results, not on outputs, and creates a systematic method of doing so. Research is also fundamental to several groundbreaking models of public relations practice, including the open systems model and the two-way symmetrical model. Research uncovers potential areas of concern so that the organization can build relationships, develop programs and take corrective action to prevent small problems from becoming major issues (Broom & Dozier, 1990; Cutlip, Center, & Broom, 2000). The two-way symmetrical model of communication, first proposed by James E. Grunig, emphasizes that the organization and its publics should be engaged in an ongoing dialog to build mutually beneficial relationships. Part of that dialog includes the use of research. “With the two-way symmetrical model, practitioners use research and dialog to bring about symbiotic changes in the ideas, attitudes and behaviors of both the organization and its publics” (Grunig, Grunig, & Dozier, 2002, p. 308). In addition, Public relations research provides the foundation for almost everything communicators do, including identifying and understanding key publics, framing important issues, developing public relations and organizational strategy, and measuring results (Gronstedt, 1997). It can also be used to gain publicity. Research helps identify the existing knowledge, predisposition or behaviors of key publics, their preferred information sources, and how best to reach them. Grunig et al. (2002) found that that research plays a crucial role in how organizations with excellent public relations departments respond to key publics such as activists. “Excellent public relations departments scan the environment [through research] and continuously bring the voices of publics, especially activist publics, into decision making” (p. 27). Excellent departments also use research to plan and evaluate their communication programs. To sum up research has great role for public relations: Planning or developing new public relations program. Monitor and track public relations activity. Measuring or evaluating outcomes. Page 18 of 66
- 19. Finding forpublicity Identify important issue for the organization. Searching / seeking problem and to solve it To facilitate relationships Types or public relations research There are two types of research in public relations activity. These includes: Formative and evaluative research. 1. Formative Research: the focus is on the preliminary work of communication planning, which is the need to gather information and analyze the situation. In three steps, the planner draws on existing information available to the organization and, at the same time, creates a research program for gaining additional information needed to drive the decisions that will come later in the planning process. On the other hand, formative research is a research feeds in to the planning phase of the process. From analyzing the situation to implementing the action. 2. Evaluative Research: deals with evaluation and assessment, enabling you to determine the degree to which the stated objectives have been met and thus to modify or continue the communication activities. Or evaluative research is a research which feeds in to the evaluation of the success or failure of the process. Techniques of Public Relations Research There are two techniques of public relations research: qualitative research and quantitative research. Both types of research are valuable, and can provide critical public relations insights, especially when used together. For example, a public relations practitioner might conduct a series of focus group interviews (qualitative research) to identify possible issues that concern employees. The practitioner could use information from the focus groups to develop questions for an employee survey (quantitative research). Qualitative Research Methods Qualitative research involves only a few cases, but they are examined in great detail. The purpose of qualitative research is to provide a rich, in-depth understanding of how certain people think or feel about a subject. However, the results cannot be generalized to larger populations. Qualitative Page 19 of 66
- 20. research allows publicrelations practitioners to “discover rather than test” ideas (Broom & Dozier, 1990, p. 400). Some qualitative research techniques frequently used in public relations include nominal group technique, in-depth interviews, focus groups, and field observations. Page 20 of 66
- 21. 1. Nominal GroupTechnique: This research technique has been used for organizational decision-making, problem-solving, and idea-generating purposes for market research (de Ruyter, 1996). The researcher assembles a purposive sample of 10 to 12 people. A purposive sample is a “nonprobability sample in which the researcher selects respondents according to his or her judgment as to their perceived representativeness or usefulness to the research process” (Broom & Dozier, 1990, p. 400). Group members typically are somewhat knowledgeable about the topic. 2. In-depth Interviews: In-depth interviews are open-ended interviews, often conducted in person. Although the researcher may have a line of questioning, the researcher may move beyond it to probe deeper into the subject’s comments. In-depth interviews last from 45 minutes to several hours. They are useful at the formative stages of research (Broom & Dozier, 1990). 3. Focus Groups: The public relations practitioner might use focus groups when looking: for a range of ideas and feelings; to understand differences and perspectives; to uncover factors that influence opinions, behaviors or motivations; for ideas to emerge from the group; or to pilot test ideas, materials, plans or policies. Focus groups can also be used to develop questions for surveys and other quantitative research, and to shed light on quantitative research data already collected (Krueger & Casey, 2000). 4. Field Observations: Field observations are defined as “a qualitative observation technique that puts you among the public you are studying in a naturalistic setting” (Broom & Dozier, 1990, p. 149). Public relations practitioners conduct field research whenever they observe or participate in social behavior and try to understand it. One public relations use of field research is observing patterns to see how people work their way through trade shows. Quantitative Research Methods Quantitative research methods allow researchers to draw statistical inferences about a population. Researchers may conclude, within a certain confidence level (how certain they are that the results are correct), that the findings hold true not only for those surveyed, but also for the entire population within that sample frame (Broom & Dozier, 1990). Quantitative research “is also the controlled, objective, and systematic gathering of data” (Stacks, 2002, p. 6), which can be generalized to larger populations. There are different qualitative research techniques: Page 21 of 66
- 22. 1. Content analysis: Contentanalysis provides a means to measure qualitative data quantitatively (Stacks, 2002). It systematically analyzes the content of communication to determine whether key messages are being communicated to key audiences. It can be used to analyze documents, news articles and television pieces, speeches, interviews, and focus group results. Possible measurements for content analysis include number of clips, total circulation of the publications, number of inches or minutes positive verses negative stories, audience type (key audience or general audience) product mention, whether key messages appear, key media or general media quality of the publication or program, prominence of the company in the story (gronstedt, 1997; Williams, 2003). 2. Surveys/ questionnaire: One common quantitative public relations research method is the survey or questionnaire. The survey sample frame defines the particular population under study. Survey questions must be carefully constructed. Unlike qualitative studies, quantitative research puts limits on respondents’ choices. In a qualitative study, a researcher might ask a broad question. quantitative survey usually provides response choices: Questions should also be tested to ensure items not are not ambiguous, irrelevant, confusing, or biased (Gronstedt, 1997). Face-to-face surveys have the highest response rates. They also have the advantage of enabling the interviewer to show respondents materials to respond. Face-to-face surveys are also the most expensive and time-consuming to administer. Also, the presence of the interviewer may cause respondents to skew their responses to appear more favorable to interviewer. Telephone surveys are less expensive than face-to-face surveys, and can be completed more quickly. However, telephone surveys have higher refusal rates than face-to-face surveys. In telephone research, the choices must be easily understood over the telephone. Telephone interviews are usually shorter than face-to-face interviews, generally lasting 10 minutes or less, therefore limiting your ability to analyze difficult concepts or issues (Broom & Dozier, 1990; Stacks 2000). Mail surveys cost less than telephone surveys and are easier to administer. Mailing lists may be available to target specific publics. However, because mail surveys are easy to ignore. Page 22 of 66
- 23. 2.3 communication inpublic relations Communication plays an essential role in effective public relations. Two-way communication between both parties is essential and information must flow in its desired form between the organization and public. The receiver must understand what the sender intends to communicate for an effective public relation. The receiver (public, target audience, stakeholders, employees, investors) must clearly understand the senders message. The message/ information needs to create an impact in the minds of customer for an effective brand positioning. Communication needs to have a strong influence on the target audience for them to remain loyal towards the organization. In public relations, the receivers play a crucial role than the sender. The sender (organization) must ensure that the receivers interpret the information correctly and also give necessary feedbacks and reviews. It is really essential for the sender to understand its target audience. Public relations experts must do extensive research and gather as much information as they can before be planning any public relation activity. Public relation activities would go unnoticed if receivers to not understand it well. Public relation activities must be designed keeping in mind the benefits of the target audience for a better brand positioning. Public relations experts must ensure: Message reaches the receiver (public) in its correct form. Audiences agree to the message They respond accordingly and give necessary feedbacks. Communication plays a vital role in effective public relations. It is very important to communicate between both parties so that both organizations are on the same page. The organization that is doing the public relations must understand exactly what it is their other parties wants for exposure. In public relations the company doing the public relations for a certain organization must ensure they are receiving the information correctly and if not they should be getting feedback as to what they should change. This would help by writing reviews and communicating back and forth allowing the sending party to help out to the best of their ability. One area where public relations can make a valuable contribution to organizational- stakeholder communication is by identifying areas of not only actual agreement and disagreement, but also of perceived agreement and disagreement. Page 23 of 66
- 24. 2.4 Evaluation ofthe process of public relations Evaluation of public relations process is important in measuring a firm’s success. Public relations professionals should therefore measure the outcome of public relations activities against a clients expected business goals. Each activity or process of public relations should be evaluated. There are various ways to evaluate the effectiveness of a public relations program: 1. Observation and experience; 2. Feedback and analysis; 3. Research. 4. Media monitoring/ media analysis 5. Measuring key result area 6. Survey or questionnaire Observation and experience This method is probably the crudest and simplest, but it is also the least expensive form of evaluation. It is not, perhaps, the most scientific method, but can be very effective. It is similar to a military intelligence-gathering operation, in that it draws on a variety of sources of raw information and material from which certain conclusions are then made. However, it may also be somewhat subjective, in that the analysts may draw incorrect or biased conclusions based on insufficient evidence, either qualitative or quantitative. Feedback and analysis Public relations is a two-way process, so it should be listening as well as telling. Feedback and the subsequent analysis of the information received, can be a very useful method of assessing the effectiveness of work carried out. Out of that analysis should emerge a picture that will give an accurate assessment of the effectiveness of the program. Feedback can also be somewhat subjective. There is a danger of this unless the analysts ensure that they are not being selective over what they retain perhaps for political reasons. All relevant information should be retained for analysis; however insignificant it may appear. Feedback will come from a wide varity of source, both internal and external such as: complaints; ideas and suggestions; Page 24 of 66
- 25. reports and recommendations; newspapercuttings whether qualitative or quantitative; broadcast media monitoring (as above); books, articles and features; parliamentary and local authority committee reports; Research The other most objective and scientific means of evaluation and assessment in use today is research market research is probably the most used method in this area of public relations and issued to assist in. through research public relations person can assess: changing attitudes; improving awareness; Altering images. With the research method of assessment, before any program is carried out there has to be some initial research to establish a starting point. This creates a snapshot ‘of the present position, the base-line from which to work. There are three main stages of research when evaluating our public relations program through research: a. Preprogram research: a research conducted before the program. b. During program: a research conducted during the implementation of the program. c. Post program: research that is conducted after the implementation of the program. Media content analysis or media monitoring: measuring the number of times the public relations campaign message is covered different media out lets. both print and broad cast media. And also measuring the number of times our message covered with social media like Facebook, twitter, and others. Measuring key result area: it is also one method of evaluating our public relations program. PR professionals can use key result area to evaluate their program. Key result areas includes: total sales, profit, revenue etc. Survey: survey or questionnaire enable as to evaluate or gauge awareness and attitudes of the target audience to our program. Page 25 of 66
- 26. Chapter Three 3. Publics,Public opinion and Public persuasion in Public relations 3.1 What are Publics? PR also uses ‘publics’ which whilst initially appearing to mean something similar to audiences in fact does not. ‘Audiences’ is used to describe a group of people who are to be communicated to, while ‘publics’ when used in PR describes people who are affected by an issue. In a democracy, people have the freedom to choose a course of action, while those who are concerned about how an issue might impact on their lives have the freedom to join together to try and do something about it. All organizations have multiple publics that it affects and/or is affected by. The public relations persons in those organizations develop strategies to reach each of those publics in ways that are meaningful to them (the publics). In other words, one of the concepts of PR is the idea that these groups- or publics- have different information needs and exert different demands on organizations. Understanding these differences is a vital skill of PR. Some examples of publics with whom public relations professionals work to develop relationships are the media, community, employees, activist groups, government officials, consumers, similar organizations, and political constituents. To sum up there are four categories of publics: Non-public – the organization has no consequence on the group or the group has no consequence on the organization. Publics who have no any information about the organization and organization also have no information about these group. Latent public – a group faces some common threat from the organization, but they do not detect a problem. Aware public – the group recognizes a problem exists. They know all information about the organization. But they don’t participate. Active public – they active participant and having recognized that a problem exists, the group organizes to do something about it and to establish what should be done to stop such problems emerging. The role of PR practitioners working for the organization is to Page 26 of 66
- 27. identify which categorytheir various publics fall into and then to organize their communication programme to deal with the most pressing problems. If, for example, the organization has to deal with a non-public, then there is no PR problem and no need to do anything about it. Generally, PR has an important role to play here not only should it be responsible for sending communication out, it should also listen to what is happening outside of the organization. It can then feed what it learns back into the organization and help to shape not just the presentation of information but also its actual content. 3.2 Public Relations and Public opinion Public opinion must be understood and dealt with PR professionals. This is because it provides the psychological environment in which organizations can prosper or perish. PR practitioners should know what constitutes public opinion and how this major force is formed. they should also constantly engage in interpreting shifts in public opinion and at the same time attempting to influence it through persuasion and communication. Public opinion: Definition Public opinion- is the sum of individual opinions on an issue affecting those individuals. Or, it is the collection of views held by persons interested in the subject. Thus, a person unaffected by, or uninterested in (and perhaps unaware of) an issue does not contribute to public opinion on the subject. Unusual events play an important role in swinging public opinion temporarily from one extreme to another. Opinion leaders and their characteristics- are people who are knowledgeable and articulate about specific issues. They are: Highly interested in the subject or issue Better informed on the issue than the average person High consumers of mass media messages Early adopters of new ideas Good organizers who can get other people to take action According to sociologists there are formal and informal opinion leaders. a) Formal- because they are elected as leaders or officials. E.g. presidents of companies or heads of membership groups. The late Araya Zerihun. Page 27 of 66
- 28. b) Informal opinionleaders- may be role models who are admired, respected or because they can exert peer pressure on others to go along with something. Haile Gebresilase, Prof. Efrem Yishaq. Such people can be influential because they can attract attention and make people aware of a topic. Sociologists such as Paul Lazars Feld claimed that mass media have minimal influence on voters ‘decision. They said voters rely on interpersonal communication and opinion leaders. Understanding public opinion and how it is formed is fundamental to PR because such knowledge enables the practitioner to: 1. Effectively monitor shifts in public opinion 2. identify formal and informal opinion leaders who should be reached with specific messages 3.3. Public opinion researches Public opinion research is the planned, collection of opinion based information from the public, private individuals and representatives of business or other institution. Or it defined as searching the complex collection of opinion of many different people and the sum of all their views. Public opinion research is also a way to measure the opinion of the large population utilizing surveys, in-depth interview, a focus group discussion. Why public opinion research is important? Public opinion research is important because: It identifies the information required to address organizational and service issue. To investigate public perception on particular issue. Such as when politicians call to ask voter opinions on local or national policies. Reflects public concerns, beliefs, and values. What issue are people aware of? Which of these issues do they think are most important? For knowing society and its mood and to measure people’s way of life. Techniques for public opinion research: Public relations PR actioner uses both qualitative and quantitative research methods. Some of them are: Online research panels Virtual or in person focus groups or mini groups In depth or intercept interviews Page 28 of 66
- 29. Telephone, mail,online or electronic surveys and other. 3.4 The idea of Persuasion It is pervasive in our lives. It is difficult to imagine any human activity in which persuasion does not exist. Persuasion can be defined as communication designed to influence choices. Or it can have defined as any communication intended or not, that causes a change in receiver’s attitude, belief, or action. At the heart of public relations there is persuasion the ability to gain public support for a decision or course of action. It is critical for public relations practitioners to understand how persuasion works, from theoretical and practical perspectives. When public relations practitioners are trying to get a target audience to do or believe something, not do something, or keep on doing something, they are engaged in persuasion. Persuasion is used to: Change or neutralize hostile opinion Activate positive but hidden attitudes Preserve favorable opinion The most difficult persuasion task is to turn hostile opinion in to favorable ones. The task is much easier if the message compatible with person’s general inclination towards a subject because persuasion here reinforces of strengthens favorable opinions. Factors in persuasive communication A number of factors are involved in persuasive communication, and the public relations practitioner should be knowledgeable about each of them. 1. Audience analysis- you should know your audience. This helps you to make your message compatible with group values 2. Source credibility- expertise and sincerity. 3. Clarity of messages- Complexity causes failure 4. Timing and context- E.g. conservation of water during drought (appropriate because the drought time) 5. Audience participation- audience involvement through discussion and decision-making Page 29 of 66
- 30. 6. Suggestion foraction- provide detailed data and ideas on how to do it. 7. Use statistics, comparisons, surveys, examples, evidences, emotional appeals, etc. Ethics of persuasion PR practitioners must conduct their activities in an ethical manner. The following ethical devices should be kept in mind by every PR professional. Do not use false, fabricated, misrepresented, distorted or irrelevant evidence to support argument or claims. Don ‘t intentionally uses suspicious or illogical reasoning. Don ‘t represent yourself as informed or an expert on a subject when you are not Don ‘t uses irrelevant appeals to divert attention from the issue at hand. Among the appeals that commonly serve such a purpose include attacks on the opponent ‘s character, reference to terms such as God or devil because they cause positive or negative reactions. Don ‘t asks your audience to link your idea or proposal to emotion-laden values, motives, or goals to which it actually is not related. Don ‘t deceives your audience by concealing your real purpose, your self-interest, the group you represent, or you position as an advocate of view point. Don ‘t over simplify complex situations into either/ or polar views or choices. Don ‘t pretend certainty when tentativeness or degree of probability would be more accurate Don ‘t advocate something in which you don ‘t believe yourself. There are three components of persuasion: the recipients of a message, the message itself, and the source of that message. The answers to those questions will help us craft a message that resonates with the target audience and accomplishes our communication objectives. We then need to be clear, as we begin to craft the message, what is it exactly we want our intended recipients to do with our message? lack of clarity at this point will prevent our message from being effective. At this point, we Page 30 of 66
- 31. should also considerhow our message might be received by unintended recipients. Why? Because proactive public relations is better than reactive public relations. Finally, after our message is crafted, we need to select the right source (channel) to deliver the message. We need to choose a source that is most credible with that particular audience. This is critically important. We may have done our research well and crafted an effective message. But if it’s not delivered by a credible source, the entire persuasive effort is likely to fail. There are other reasons why persuasive campaigns fail and succeed. Persuasive rhetoric has been studied for thousands of years. The Greeks made an art of it, and contemporary scholars have proposed scientific theories of why people are motivated to do what they do. One such scholar is Otto Lerbinger, who says there are five different approaches to persuasion. 1. Stimulus response: based on the idea of association (connection). A low-level, almost thoughtless response from the audience. useful for establishing an "association" between idea and your organization. persuasive approach which is designed to give quick response. 2. cognitive approach: Basic idea: People can think and reason about what they read, see or hear. Provide reasonable arguments to persuade them to agree with you. Limitation: People rarely are persuaded by the facts alone. 3. motivational approach: Basic idea: People change attitudes to fulfill a need. Your message must offer an emotional reward for accepting your message. Must identify the relevant needs of your target audience. 4. social approach: Basic idea: An individual's background, social class and group norms affect attitudes. The same message will not be effective across regional, ethnic or national boundaries. 5. Finally, there is the personality approach: Basic idea: Each individual is unique. Page 31 of 66
- 32. Personality characteristicscan determine which arguments work best. Difficult to implement when trying to reach mass audiences. Chapter Four 4. Public Relations in action 4.1 Strategic planning for public relations practice At the heart of all public relations campaign there is planning and strategy. After all, without a good strategy it would be impossible for a public relations expert to ensure where the right impact on an audience at the right time. Here is an overview of the four-phase, nine-step planning process presented in the textbook Strategic Planning for Public Relations (Smith, R.D. 2008, Routledge/Taylor & Francis). The steps are equally applicable to campaign planning in public relations, advertising and integrated communication. The process of these steps is deliberate, and they must be taken in sequence. After identifying a problem, our tendency too often is to skip ahead to seeking solutions, leaping over research and analysis. This can result in unwarranted assumptions that later prove to be costly, counterproductive and embarrassing. Careful planning leads to programs that are proactive and preventative, rather than to activities that are merely reactive and remedial. At the same time, the steps in this process are flexible enough to allow for constant monitoring, testing and adjusting as needed. Ask experienced communication managers, and you may find that they don't necessarily articulate their planning specifically along the lines of these nine steps. But talk with them about their work, and you are likely to find that they go through a process pretty much like the one being presented here, whether they identify "steps" or not. A few practitioners may admit (somewhat guiltily) that they don't do much planning. If they are being honest, they'll tell you they know they've been lucky so far with their hunches. Perhaps they don't do formal planning Page 32 of 66
- 33. because they don'thave the time or because the environment is so unstable that all they can do is react. Some practitioners may tell you their bosses and clients want action rather than planning (though such shortsighted bosses and clients usually don't remain in business very long). If you could observe how professionals work, however, you'd probably find that effective communication managers do plan. The good ones have learned how to build the research and planning components into their work and "sell" it to their clients and bosses. Strategic Planning for Public Relations Phase One: Formative Research · Step 1: Analyzing the Situation · Step 2: Analyzing the Organization · Step 3: Analyzing the Publics Phase Two: Strategy · Step 4: Establishing Goals and Objectives · Step 5: Formulating Action and Response Strategies · Step 6: Designing Effective Communication Phase Three: Tactics · Step 7: Selecting Communication Tactics · Step 8: Implementing the Strategic Plan Phase Four: Evaluative Research · Step 9: Evaluating the Strategic Plan Phase one: Formative Research During the first phase of the nine steps, Formative Research, the focus is on the preliminary work of communication planning, which is the need to gather information and analyze the situation. In three steps, the planner draws on existing information available to the organization and, at the same time, creates a research program for gaining additional information needed to drive the decisions that will come later in the planning process. Step 1: Analyzing the Situation. Your analysis of the situation is the crucial beginning to the process. It is imperative that all involved-planner, clients, supervisors, key colleagues and the Page 33 of 66
- 34. ultimate decision makers-arein solid agreement about the nature of the opportunity or obstacle to be addressed in this program. Step 2: Analyzing the Organization. This step involves a careful and candid look at three aspects of the organization: (1) its internal environment (mission, performance and resources), (2) its public perception (reputation) and (3) its external environment, (competitors and opponents, as well as supporters). Step 3: Analyzing the Publics. In this step you identify and analyze your key publics-the various groups of people who interact with your organization on the issue at hand. Strategic Planning for Public Relations provides an objective technique for setting priorities among the various publics, helping you select those most important on the particular issue being dealt with. This step includes an analysis of each public in terms of their wants, needs and expectations about the issue, their relationship to the organization, their involvement in communication and with various media, and a variety of social, economic, political, cultural and technological trends that may affect them. Phase two: Strategy The second phase of the planning process, Strategy, deals with the heart of planning: making decisions dealing with the expected impact of the communication, as well as the nature of the communication itself. Step 4: Establishing Goals and Objectives. Step 4 focuses on the ultimate position being sought for the organization and for the product or service. This step helps you develop clear, specific and measurable objectives that identify the organization's hoped-for impact on the awareness, acceptance and action of each key public. A good deal of attention is given to objectives dealing with acceptance of the message, because this is the most crucial area for public relations and marketing communication strategists. Step 5: Formulating Action and Response Strategies. A range of actions is available to the organization, and in this step you consider what you might do in various situations. This section includes typologies of initiatives and responses. Step 6: Designing Effective Communication. Step 6 deals with the various decisions about the message, such as the sources who will present the message to the key publics, the content of the message, its tone and style, verbal and nonverbal cues, and related issues. Lessons from research Page 34 of 66
- 35. about persuasive communicationand dialogue will be applied for the ultimate purpose of designing a message that reflects the information gained through Step 3. Phase three: Tactics During the Tactics phase, various communication tools are considered and the visible elements of the communication plan are created. Step 7: Selecting Communication Tactics. This inventory deals with the various communication options. Specifically, the planner considers four categories: (1) face-to-face communication and opportunities for personal involvement, (2) organizational media (sometimes called controlled media), (3) news media (uncontrolled media) and (4) advertising and promotional media (another form of controlled media). While all of these tools can be used by any organization, not every tool is appropriate for each issue. Following the menu review, the planner packages the tactics into a cohesive communication program. Step 8: Implementing the Strategic Plan. In Step 8, you develop budgets and schedules and otherwise prepare to implement the communication program. This step turns the raw ingredients identified in the previous step into a recipe for successful public relations and marketing communication. Phase four: Evaluative Research The final phase, Evaluative Research, deals with evaluation and assessment, enabling you to determine the degree to which the stated objectives have been met and thus to modify or continue the communication activities. Step 9: Evaluating the Strategic Plan. This is the final planning element, indicating specific methods for measuring the effectiveness of each recommended tactic in meeting the stated objectives. 4.2 communication channels and Media relations Communication is the process of exchanging information between two or more parties. In this process, one party transmits message by using a medium and the other party receives the message. In the communication process, information flows from sender to receiver. In order to make communication effective, the sender should know the reaction of the receiver. When the receiver sends back his response to the sender in connection with the message Page 35 of 66
- 36. received, it iscalled two-way communication. Through two-way communication, parties can exchange their views, attitudes, feelings, new, messages information, data etc. On the other hand, Communication can be defined as the act of transmitting information, ideas, and attitudes from one person to another. In a PR plan, communication is the implementation of a decision, the process and the means by which objectives are achieved. The main goal of communication is to inform, persuade/motivate/influence, or achieve mutual understanding. Communication may take the form of news releases, news conferences, special events, brochures, speeches, bumper sticks, newsletters, parades, posters, and the like. Communication is one of those human activities that everyone recognizes but few can define satisfactorily. Communication is talking to one another, it is television, it is spreading information, it is our hair style, it is literary criticism: the list is endless. The main goals of communication in public relations activities are: To inform: The principal function of communication is informing messages to others. It really is done verbally or non-verbally. Verbal messages might be either oral or written. On the other hand, non-verbal messages can be sent via human body language, gestures, posture etc. To persuade/ motivate: One more essential functionality of communication is persuading a single party by another. In business, management persuades the employees to make certain that employees persuade management so that management accepts their ideas, opinions, and suggestions. The business also communicates with external stakeholders to persuade them. To achieve mutual understanding Page 36 of 66
- 37. In addition, theabove three points, Communication is really a different field that has some various objectives. To gain individual objectives, communication performs quite a few functions. Some of its major functions are as follows: Integrating various divisions and departments: Attainment of organizational goals requires integration and coordination of activities performed by various individuals, groups and departments. Management can put together and coordinate those people divisions and departments by building a communication network for the whole organization. Creating relationships through external parties: Communication creates relationships not just with internal parties but also with the external parties like customers, suppliers, investors, general community, and government. Communication through these external parties could be the for the survival of an organization. Improving labor-management association: There’s no option to excellent labor-management relationship for achieving organizational goals. Therefore, a significant purpose of communication is to increase labor-management relationship. Communication helps each party to express themselves and produce an atmosphere of cooperation. Helping in choice making: Management is absolutely nothing but producing decisions for creating decision, management requirements information. The function of communication is to supply relevant info on the management in time so that they are able to make appropriate decisions. Page 37 of 66
- 38. Reducing misunderstanding:In the absence of communication, misunderstanding, distance, conflict, controversies etc. May perhaps a rise inside the organization. Communication helps to overcome and avoid these misunderstanding, disagreement and controversies. Solving troubles: Difficulties are favorite to every business. A business faces good deal of difficulties in its day-to-day operations. Achievement of business depends on timely items of individual problems. Item of these problems is impossible without the need of appropriate communication with the concerned parties. Characteristics of successful communication? Communication is considered as successful if the message is received by the target audience. It also has to get the audience's attention, must be understood, must be believed, must be remembered, and ultimately must be acted upon. Models of communication Models are theoretical and simplified representations of the real world. A model is not an explanatory device by itself, but it helps to formulate theory. It suggests relationships, and it is often confused with theory because the relationship between a model and a theory is close. Before we study the communication models let us first look into the most general terms what communication implies. Sender (encoder), a channel, a message, a receiver (decoder), a receiver an effect, a context in which communication occurs and feedback any process by which the communicator obtains information about whether and how the intended receiver has indeed received the message. Three different ways of viewing communication process Page 38 of 66
- 39. 1) linear model:explains the process of communication where by a sender transmits a message and a receiver absorb it. It is straight forward communication model that is used across business to assist with customer communication driven activities such as marketing, public relations and others. The sender, channel and receiver play crucial roles in linear communication. The sender encoding the message and send it through channel another party the receiver receives the message and interpret/ decoding it. 2) Interactive model: is also known as convergence model deals and messages takes place both ways from sender to receiver and vice versa. It requires different following components for the communication process to work. Encoder: source of the message or a person who originates a message. Message: information sent during interaction. Decoder: recipients of the message. Feedback: the decoder forms a second message after receiving the first message. In interactive model a sender sends a message to a receiver then the receiver decoded it to get the original message. Again the receiver acts as a source, encodes another message known as feedback and sends it to the sender. In interactive model communication pattern considers culture, social, psychology, situation and channels used. 3). Transactional: is exchange of message between sender and receiver where each take turns to send or receive messages. Here both sender and receiver are known as communicators and their role reverses each time in the communication process as both processes of sending and receiving occurs at the same time. And it is the process of continuous change and transformation where every component is changing such as people their environment and the medium used. In this model both sender and receiver are necessary to keep the communication alive. In addition, different communication barriers/ noises are affect our communication. So we should consider them as a communicator. Communication channel Communication channel is a medium through which a message is sent to its intended receiver. It is central to all meaningful collaboration and team work. Communication keeps a whole organization moving. There are different communication channels these include: Face to face conversation Page 39 of 66
- 40. Video conferencing Audio conferencing Email Written letters and memo Messaging Blog Formal written document Spread sheets etc. All the above communication channels categorized as print, broadcast, oral, online/ digital media. Media Relations – communication with large groups of people outside an organization is practicable only through the mass media. An organizations coordinator of media relations responds to news media queries. Arranges news conferences and news releases. These coordinators coach executives for news interviews and sometimes serve as their organization ‘s spokesperson. Adding to this media relation is: dealing and communicating with news media when seeking publicity or respond to reporter’s question. It also involves setting up and maintaining a professional and mutually beneficial working relationship with newsgatherers and gatekeepers in part by Becoming known as a credible source as a provider of factual, expert information whether or not that information results in media coverage. Media Relations Goal Help a media person get what they’re looking for. Provide stories with real news value. Target the right media. Have factual background materials available. Always be honest. 4.3 crisis and crisis management A crisis can be defined as an unpredictable, major threat that can have a negative effect on the organization, industry, or stakeholders (Coombs, 1999, p. 2). This definition is derived from a synthesis of other crisis definitions and presents the three critical features of a crisis. First, a crisis cannot be predicted but it can be expected. Crisis managers know a crisis will hit but Page 40 of 66
- 41. cannot say exactlywhen a crisis is unpredictable. Second, a major threat has the potential to disrupt organizational operations in some way. A crisis might close a production line or require inventorying the return of defective products. This does not mean operations are always disrupted, just that the potential exists. Quick actions by the crisis management team can prevent the crisis from fulfilling its disruptive potential. Thierry Pauchant and Ian Mitroff (1992) called smaller problems incidents. Incidents are fairly easy to cope with and will not disrupt the organizational routine. Consider an explosion at a petroleum processing facility that kills three workers. The organization may be shut down for repairs and loss of production time. The safety of the entire industry may come under scrutiny because of the publicity and investigation surrounding a high- profile accident. Nearby residents may have been evacuated after the explosion as a precaution against hazardous chemicals while customers may experience an increase in price as production levels drop. A crisis extends over a period of time. Steven Fink (1986) described a four-step life cycle for a crisis: 1. Prodromal, where warning signs appear before a crisis hits; 2. Crisis breakout or acute, where the trigger event occurs or what we typically think of as the crisis happening; 3. Chronic, the time it takes to attend to the damage and disruption from the crisis; and 4. Resolution, in which there is evidence that the crisis is over and no longer a factor with stakeholders. Fink‘s work helped people to realize there is more to crisis management than simply reacting to the crisis. Crisis management: is the ability to cope with any emergency situation that may arise in such a way that the minimum amount of damage ‘is caused to the organization - in whatever context that may be. Any organization that has the misfortune to experience an emergency situation, of any sort, must not only be able to cope, but must be seen to be able to do so. Otherwise, it will suffer damage in terms of both of its image and its credibility, not only with its own workforce but also with the public. Page 41 of 66
- 42. Crisis management couldbe much more proactive by attempting to prevent crises. Crisis management is a set of factors designed to combat crises and lessen the actual damage inflicted by a crisis (Coombs, 1999, p. 4). Crisis management often is mistakenly equated with having a crisis management plan. Crisis management is a complex set of factors that unfold in four stages: prevention, preparation, response, and learning. The stages of crisis management were influenced by work in disaster management and Fink‘s life cycle of a crisis. Stage 1: prevention and mitigation: Crisis management begins with prevention or mitigation. Prevention seeks to identify the various risks an organization faces. A risk is a potential threat that could escalate into a crisis. Risks include weather threats, worker error or violence, and technology failures. Prevention involves attempts to identify and to mitigate the risks. Identification involves locating potential sources of risk the organization scans for risks that could trigger a crisis. Mitigation tries to eliminate or reduce the risks. Some risks can be eliminated for instance; an organization uses a hazardous chemical in its production process. The risk of a hazardous chemical can be eliminated if the organization can find a nonhazardous chemical to replace the hazardous one it uses. Most risks cannot be eliminated. For instance, workers can always make mistakes or become violent. Training and monitoring can be used to reduce the risks that cannot be eliminated. Prevention and mitigation reinforce the need for crisis management. Managers begin to realize what can go wrong in their organization and that they cannot stop many of the risks. Stage 2: preparation: Preparation means the organization is getting ready for a crisis because management realizes one might occur. Preparation is what many people in organizations think about when the term crisis management is used. The essential elements of preparation are a crisis management plan, a crisis management team, and practicing the crisis management plan. The crisis management plan is an outline for the organization to respond to the crisis. The value of the crisis management plan lies in the pre-assignment of responsibilities and pre- collection of critical information. Time is saved during a crisis when people already know what they are supposed to do. Time is not lost in deciding who should do what. Critical contact names Page 42 of 66
- 43. and methods ofcontact have been collected so that time is not lost later on. The key to a useful crisis management plan is not making it too detailed or too thick. A crisis management plan must be adapted because each crisis is unique and a plan cannot cover all contingencies. A crisis management plan will include the names of members of the crisis management team and their contact information, key people or groups that may be useful during a crisis and their contact information, and forms to remind crisis team members of what to do, such as logging and responding to outside inquiries about the crisis or documenting actions taken to address the crisis. To develop a crisis management plan, managers’ must revisit their identification of risks. The managers perform a crisis vulnerability analysis to determine which types of crises they are most likely to face; the risk analysis will indicate what crises are likely to emerge. Stage 3: Response is the actual reaction once a crisis does hit. The response encompasses what the crisis management team says and does to handle the crisis. Preparation makes the response more effective if the organization has practiced. The crisis management team faces physical and informational demands. The physical demands include addressing the damage from the crisis. Examples include injured people in need of treatment, evacuating people at risk, containing and suppressing fires, reinforcing buildings with structural damage, and salvaging equipment. The crisis management team collects information to discover what happened. The crisis management team is responsible for collecting and disseminating information to various stakeholders. The crisis management team is trying to find out basic information about the crisis: what happened, what was the cause, who was or might be affected, where did it occur, and how much damage was sustained. This information is necessary to help make decisions about the physical response. For instance, a crisis team must know what is in a gas cloud created by an accident and where the gas cloud will travel before determining if an evacuation is necessary and who should be evacuated. Stakeholders will contact the organization to get information. The news media, people living near the facility, suppliers, clients, and government officials all might contact the Page 43 of 66
- 44. organization to getinformation about the crisis. The crisis management plan helps to coordinate the collection and dissemination of crisis information. Crisis management does not end when the crisis ends. There are three key activities that must transpire after the crisis, that is, monitor and cooperate with investigations, update stakeholders, and evaluate the crisis management effort. Many crises, such as airline accidents and chemical accidents, take time to investigate to determine their cause. The crisis management team must help investigators, typically some government agency, and keep abreast of any findings. Reporting results of investigations is one of the points that would be communicated to stakeholders in updates. Updates also include any other information that the crisis team promised to deliver to the stakeholders during the crisis. For example, an explosion at a plastic manufacturing facility halts production at that site. The crisis team promises to inform employees and the community about the cause of the accident and any corrective measures. The crisis team must also inform customers when the facility will be operational again. Stage 4 learning: Experts agree that the best learning experience for crisis management is a real crisis. Therefore, an organization must do all it can to learn from its own crisis experience. To learn from a crisis, the crisis management efforts must be carefully evaluated. The careful post- crisis analysis is called a postmortem. A postmortem is a systematic study of what the crisis management team did and the effectiveness of those actions it assesses what was done well or poorly. Postmortems are stressful because people fear management is looking for a scapegoat. It is critical that postmortems are not a search for blame but a search for information. Once evaluated, the crisis team is briefed on its performance. The team learns what it is doing right and what it should change for future crisis management efforts. The next crisis practice should focus on the points the team should change. For instance, if there is a problem coordinating efforts with emergency responders, the next crisis practice should concentrate on the organization-emergency responder interface. Page 44 of 66
- 45. The postmortem needsto be structured by having a set group of criteria. The results of the postmortem will be better organized if the process is systematic. The results of the postmortem are then stored for future reference. The better organized the postmortem information is, the easier it will be to retrieve as a reference at some future date. Storing the postmortem information is institutional memory about crisis management and the knowledge can be referenced whenever needed. The crisis management process is actually a circle. Learning can inform any of the other three stages. Lessons from the crisis may help in prevention (e.g., how to reduce some risks), preparation (e.g., how to improve the crisis management plan), or response (e.g., how better to deal with the news media). Crisis Communication Crisis communication is used in a variety of ways in crisis management. Depending what article or book is read, a person can discover very different uses of the term. Broadly, crisis communication is the collection and dissemination of information by the crisis management team. There are two general uses of the term crisis communication: (1) crisis communication as information and (2) crisis communication as strategy. Crisis communication as information refers to the need to collect and disseminate information during a crisis. The information is collected to fill the information void of a crisis and thereby allow the crisis management team to understand what is happening and what actions they need to take. Decisions in a crisis require accurate information if they are to be effective. Crisis communication as strategy refers to the use of messages to repair relationships with stakeholders. What an organization says and does after a crisis, crisis response strategies, affects its relationships with stakeholders. Thus, the crisis manager must carefully construct post-crisis response strategies. Crisis communication is a factor throughout the four stages of a crisis: prevention, preparation, response, and learning. (Refer to the entry Crisis and crisis Page 45 of 66
- 46. management for acomplete discussion of the crisis stages.) The crisis stages serve as a useful framework for reviewing the finer points of crisis communication. Types of crisis There are Man-made and natural crisis. Natural crisis is an accident which is caused by environmental factors that injure people and damage property. These includes: Earth quick Volcano Caused by Floods Lan slide Drought etc… Human made crisis is caused by human made hazards opposed to natural disaster. That means crisis occur due to human made mistakes. These includes: Technological crisis Financial crisis A crisis of malice Work place violence etc. 4.4 Public issue communication and Public-Relations Issue communication derives strength from Public-Relations, and from its various disciplines– Public-affairs, communication and government relations practitioners can move into full participation in management decision-making. PR practitioner understand that they are expected to play increasingly complex and involved role in promoting the bottom line, building harmonious relations with stockholders and protecting corporate interests in ways that must be sensitive to the needs of a variety of external interest. PR practitioners are well placed to help manage issues effectively but often lack the necessary access to strategic planning functions or an appropriate networking environment which encourages informal as well as formal contact and reporting. Functions of Public-Issue Communication The functions required for issue communication are identifying issues and trends, evaluating their impact and setting priorities, establish an image of company position, designing creative action of company and response to help achieve the position and implementing the plans. The key test of this activity are Page 46 of 66
- 47. Planning Monitoring Analyzing & Communicating These depend on the broad function requirement which are described below: 1) Planning and operations: If issue communicator are doing an effective duty of capturing the difficult changes in the public-policy environment then that information should be integrated into a strategic business plan and corporate communication strategies. Public issue communication can positively affect corporate performance by enhancing the firm’s responsiveness to environmental change. 2) Defense and offence Public-issue communication offers the rationale, tools and incentives for becoming involved in the discussion of public-policy issues as early as possible. If companies feel involved before issues have solidified, they can increase the likelihood of their communication campaigns succeeding. 3) Social responsibility As we know market forces alone do not shape the fate of corporations and public policy change plays its role. In addition, public-relations must be sensitive to public policy and issue forces and assist in corporate planning and in the information of business ethics. Types of public-issue From a corporate perspective there are some research on issue management carried out at the end of 1995 indicates that corporations were most concerned about in dealing with the types of issues which are following: - Legislative Environmental New technology Political Social Industry Specific Economic Page 47 of 66
- 48. Legal 4.5 Toolsof public relations Public relations involve the cultivation of favorable relation for organization and it uses variety of communication channel to perform its objectives. Public relations, as you know, is the "art of creating mutual understanding between an organization and its various publics. "Publics" in Public Relations mean those group or groups of people whose opinion has a direct bearing on the functioning of an organization. A typical organization will have employees, shareholders, dealers, stockholders’ government, media and the public at large, as its "Publics". In fact, publics for different organizations will vary according to the nature of the organization. To reach these "Publics", the Public Relations practitioner has to decide the tools and the channels which will be most suitable. If an organization has to disseminate information to a rural audience, where the literacy rate is negligible, what should be the best tool which is cost effective'? Newspapers obviously, will not be suitable, because the concerned target audiences are unlettered. Then what options does the Public Relations practitioner have'? Depending on the availability of the budget, it can be radio, TV, interpersonal communication or traditional media. In order to make communication effective, you have to keep in view the message, the media and the audience. The following are some tools of public relations used by an organization: Audio news release: most of these taped news releases, sent to radio stations, feature voice actualities of organization spokesperson or representatives. It may be sent with paper copy of a wrapper to be used by the newscaster. Billboard announcement: a brief message submitted by nonprofit or community group on community needs and activities they are run free of charge on community cable television. By lined article: article written mostly for trade and business publication. The article byline is that of a key player in the submitting organization. Chatter sheet: sheets with interesting, timely and brief bits of information. Example: trivia historical milestones, consumer tips, etc. on themes or topics relevant to an organization that are sent to the DJs to use during their radio shows. Page 48 of 66
- 49. Community calendarannouncement: a brief description (who, what, when, and why) of a community need or activity, included in a radio or television “community calendar “segment. Community notice: a brief description (who, what, when, where, and why) of a community event, need, etc. listed free in a special section of a newspaper or periodical. (those focusing on events often are called event listing.) Features: a story that gives detailed information on an issue, a trend a situation, an industry, a company or organization, or a person. A feature often focuses on the human element, and most are designed to enlighten, entertain, and / or education. Feature story can be submitted to community newspapers and magazines on paper or on disk. News Conference: A gathering of members of the news media, both print and broadcast, to cover an announcement usually too complicated to convey in any other manner. News/press releases: A news story written for and released to the news media particularly newspaper, news release submitted to newspaper are written. News from organizations, also known as press releases is the most common type of publicity. Organizations serve as source material for media and hence they should provide such news and facts which will be of interest to the readers, whether the content has to do with planned activity like a major order bagged, or with spontaneous event like an accident. position paper: Position paper is a document stating the organizations position on some public issue. Position papers may be distributed in a response to media requests. Or inquiries, they may be included in media kits or they may be sent with a covering letter to all media interested in the organizations position on a certain issue. Backgrounders: Backgrounder is a document that contains back ground information on a person, organization, issue etc. a backgrounder provides more extensive information than is generally included in standalone public relations tools such as news release. Public service announcement: Public service announcement is a broadcast announcement for which no charge is made that promotes the programs, activities or services of governments (nonpartisan), nonprofit organization or other groups serving community interests. Information for public service announcement can be prepared in point form, as a script or prerecorded. Page 49 of 66
- 50. Social mediaRelease: Social media release is an enhanced new release. It follows the sample principle of newsworthiness as the traditional news release, but it is augmented by various bells and whistles such as audio, video, social bookmarking links, photos, and etc. Pitch Letters: Pitching involves approaching an editor, producer, news director or reporter and trying to interest him or her in writing, converting or airing a possible story covering an event, or doing an interview. So pitch letter or memo means a one pitch in letter or memo format that sells the recipient on having a specific person participate in a public affairs program or talk show, providing expert opinion for a breaking story, or participating in joint contest or other promotion. Letter to the editor: A letter written for and sent to a newspaper or magazine to among other things present an organizations position, make a correction or respond to another story or letter. Annual Reports: Not long ago, Annual Reports were drab-looking journals without much thought about their presentation. Not anymore. Annual reports have come to be recognized as an important Public Relations tool for corporate communication. With more and more organizations going public, annual reports can serve as prestige publications to be sent to the shareholders and attract prospective investors. press conference: press conference is a voluntary presentation of information to the media. In a press, you decide what information is presented, how it is presented and who presents it. It is an opportunity to get your story on TV, radio or in the paper. To hold a press conference, you contact the media, pick a time and a place, make a presentation conference and respond to reporters’ questions. Speeches: Formal speeches are the quickest way of conveying Information. Preparation of speeches and sometimes delivering the speech are jobs of the Public Relations department. Speakers must be trained and knowledgeable. The Public Relations department may also form a speakers' bureau from. Among the volunteer speakers who are the executives of the company and possess competence on the relevant subject. Meeting: is the coming together of two or 'more persons. It could be just a meeting of two department heads, a small group meeting, committee meeting etc. Yet every meeting is arranged with some purpose e.g. to resolve conflicts, brief the employees, solve Page 50 of 66
- 51. problems, obtain reactionsto a new scheme etc. Meetings are planned by sending notices containing the agenda, well in advance to members, to enable them to prepare for the meeting. All arrangements must be made for smooth conduct of the meeting. Leistering is important and hence every participant 'must be given a chance to speak. The chairman must initiate, direct and control the discussions and facilitate reaching of conclusions. Chapter Five 5. Concepts of organization and organizational communication 5.1. Meaning of organization Dictionary definition for the term organization, (1) the act of organizing or the state of being organized; (2) an organized structure or whole; (3) a business or administrative concern united and constructed for a particular end (4) a body of administrative officials, as of a political party, a government department, etc. (5) order or system; method. organization. There are many definitions for the term organization: 1. General Business Definitions: “a system of consciously coordinated activities of two or more persons.” Barnard, C. I. (1938). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pg. 73. “The accomplishment of an objective requires collective effort, men set up an organization designed to coordinate the activities of many persons and to furnish incentives for others to join them for this purpose.” Blau, P. M., & Scott, W. R. (1962). Formal organizations: A comparative approach. San Francisco: Chandler, pg. 5. “A social unit of people, systematically structured and managed to meet a need or to pursue collective goals on a continuing basis. All organizations have a management structure that determines relationships between functions and positions, and subdivides and delegates roles, responsibilities, and authority to carry out defined tasks. Organizations are open systems in that they affect and are affected by the environment beyond their boundaries. “organization. (n.d.). Retrieved March 18, Page 51 of 66
- 52. 2012,fromBusinessDictionary.comwebsite:http://www.businessdictionary.com/ definition/ organization.html “aBody of individuals working under a defined system of rules, assignments procedures, and relationships designed to achieve identifiable objectives and goals.” Greenwald, H. P. (2008). Organizations: Management without control. Los Angeles, CA: Sage, pg. 6. 2. Organizational Behavior Definitions “a social unit within which people have achieved somewhat stable relations (not necessarily face-to-face) among themselves in order to facilitate obtaining a set of objectives or goals. Litterer, J. A. (1963). Organizations: Structured behavior. New York: John Wiley and Sons, pg. 5. “an organization is a complex system, which includes as subsystems: (1) management, to interrelate and integrate through appropriate linking processes all the elements of the system in a manner designed to achieve the organizational objectives, and (2) a sufficient number of people so that constant face-to-face interaction is impossible.” Lundgren, E. F. (1974). Organizational management: Systems and process. San Francisco: Canfield Press, pg. 7. 3. Industrial/Organizational Psychology Definition “work consists of patterned human behavior and the ‘equipment’ consists of the human beings. “Katz, D., & Kahn, R. L. (1978). “lively sets of interrelated systems [task, structure, technology, people, and the environment] designed to perform complicated tasks. Levitt, H. J. (1972). Managerial 4. Organizational Communication Definitions “social collectives in which people develop ritualized patterns of interaction in an attempt to coordinate their activities and efforts in the ongoing accomplishment of personal and group goals.”Kreps, G. L. (1986). Organizational communication. New York: Longman, pg. 5. “including five critical features namely, the existence of a social collectivity, organizational and individual goals, coordinated activity, organizational structure, and the embedding of the organization with an environment of other organizations. “Miller, K. Page 52 of 66
- 53. (2012). Organizational communication:Approaches and processes (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Was dworth-Cengage, pg. 11. “Communicative structures of control.” Mumby, D. (in press). Organizational communication. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE. “an organized collection of individuals working interdependently within a relatively structured, organized, open system to achieve common goals. ”Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (2009). “an aggregate of persons, arranged in predetermined patterns of relationships, in order to accomplish stated objectives. To sum up: out of these definition we use organizational communication definition for this lesson. Social collectives in which people develop ritualized patterns of interaction in an attempt to coordinate their activities and efforts in the ongoing accomplishment of personal and group goals. Including five critical features namely, the existence of social collectivity organizational and individual goals, coordinated activity, organizational structure, and the embedding of the organization with an environment of other organizations. 5.2. organizational communication organizational communication as the process whereby an organizational stakeholder (or group of stakeholders) attempts to stimulate meaning in the mind of another an organizational stakeholder (or group of stakeholders) through intentional use of verbal, nonverbal, and/or mediated messages. In F. M. Jablin & L. L. Putnam (Eds.), .” Deetz, S. (2001). Stanley Deetz articulated three different ways the term “organizational communication” can be understood: the discipline, ways to describe/ explain organizations, and a phenomenon within organizations. His first perspective describes organizational communication as an academic discipline that consists of an intellectual history, textbooks, courses, degrees, etc… The second way to describe organizational communication as a way of describing organizations. Under this perspective, organizational communication is used to describe and/or explain how organizations Page 53 of 66
- 54. functions. Lastly, organizationalcommunication is a specific set of behaviors that is exhibited within an organization itself. People talk and interact with one another, which is a form of organizational communication, and through these interactions we actually create the phenomenon that is an organization. Types of organizational communication There are four types of organizational communication: these includes: 1. directional communication: includes down ward, upward, and horizontal communication. Down ward communication: when communication follows from the manager to other stake holders. Upward communication: communication flows from lower level workers/ employees to the top managers. Horizontal communication: communication between peoples who are work at the same level. For example: communication between top manager with other top manager. And also with in two workers/employees. 2. Formal and informal communication Formal communication: is arranged formally based on the official status or the position of the communicator information flows smoothly, accurately and timely. Informal communication: is informal relationship between parties. For example, comments and suggestion from your friends informally. 3. Oral and written communication Oral communication: communication through oral words. For example, face to face conversation. Written communication: communication through printed material like magazine, newspaper and others. 4. Internal and external communication Internal communication: communication between the internal parties of the organization. Example: communication employees with employees. Page 54 of 66
- 55. External communication:communication with parties or organizations which are outside from our organization. For example, communication between two organizations. 5.3. concept of community relations Community relations is a branch of public relations concerned with the cultivating and sustaining healthy relationship between an organization and the community or communities where the organization exists. It is simply conceptualized as “social service responsibility of an organization” (Ademolekun and Ekandayo, 2002: 133). The essence of community relations practice therefore is to achieve and sustain safe operational climate for any organization operating within a given community. Peak (1991: 177) cited in Nwosu (2001: 49) defines community relations as an institution’s planned, active and continuing participation within a community to maintain and enhance its environment to the benefit of the institution, its employees and shareholders and the larger community. It has also been explained as "having and keeping friends in the community. Community Relations is function of establishing rapport with the community and raising and maintaining the organization’s broad public profile. Include marketing, advertising, media liaison, exhibitions, celebrations, ceremonies, speeches, official representation at functions and participation in community activities. Also includes relationships with professional bodies and industry, the management of customer services, handling reactions to those services, customer consultation and feedback. 5.3.1. Functions of community Relations The function is that community relations practice is beneficial to both an organization and its host community. The organization benefits by operating in a safe community atmosphere and the community benefits by having its environment developed by the organization. This will in turn help to improve conflict between the organization and its host community. It is unquestionable that the very presence of a corporate organization in a given place easily impacts on socio-cultural, economic and physical environment of that locality. By localizing a Page 55 of 66
- 56. Public Relations andAdvertising organization in an area, the residents of that area who suffers from the ugly consequence of such localization should also gain from positive outcome of the business activity of that organization. Community relations is therefore needed to ensure that host communities receive fair treatment from the organizations operating within their communities. Unfair treatment of host communities by corporate organizations operating in a given community can lead to a chain of conflict. It makes sense, therefore, for organizations to engage in community relations so as to achieve harmonious relationship between an organization and its community neighbors. The rationale or need for community relations practice as articulated by Nwodu (2007: 221-222) Community relations therefore require that organizations should: Understanding the power-cum-leadership structure inherent in the community and fashion out how to use the potentials of the power structures to achieve common understanding between the organization and the host community. Understanding the state of social institutions like schools, hospital, market etc. existing in a community in order to know how such institutions could be enhanced. Understanding the cultures including the norms, values, mores, social events (festivals) and general life style of the community members. Understanding clearly, the core needs of the community and prioritize such needs according to their relative degree of importance. Providing enabling environment for constant dialogue between various arms of or interest groups in a community and by extension, monitor their feelings and dispositions toward the company. Know the community or communities in which they exist Identify with the needs of the community or communities in which they exist Be and function as corporate citizens of the community or communities in which they exist. Ensure at all times that there is healthy relationship between them and the community or communities in which they exist. Page 56 of 66
- 57. Understanding howbest to go about the management the organization’s social responsibility functions without provoking negative reactions from the community residents. 5.3.2 Objectives of Community Relations Practice: the primary objectives of community relations are: To increase sales and support of its product or service To exhibit commitment in the area of social responsibility of business To make the community a better place for both the organization and the people of the community alike To maintains peace and harmony with the community; and To prove good corporate citizenship. 5.4. Developing community relation Six principles for developing successful community relations 1. Establish and commit to a project message(s): Ensures clarity within the community. 2. Speak with one voice: Every team member echoes the same message, policies, and approach. And All written materials reflect the same information and vernacular. Value: Continuity within the community 3. Have a dedicated Community Relations point of contact, serves as liaison between technical experts and the community and Should be an individual with which the community can identify. Value: Establishes trust-based relationship 4. Apply the Risk Communication Model: Understand your audience Identify potential issues Identify potential agendas Listen twice as much as you speak Avoid jargon and streamline technical data Show empathy Maintain continuity of team points of contact Value: Responds to the Human Psychology of Risk 5. Provide multiple and regular communication methods: You should cater to the audience not assume how they receive information. And Saturate them with Page 57 of 66
- 58. information that istailored to them. Value: People respond best with they are well informed. 6. Have an exit strategy Projects will have an impact on the community. Have an exit strategy for completion of the project and a contingency strategy should funding be withdrawn. Value: They will remember best what you do last Chapter six 6. Theory, ethics and laws affecting public relations practices 6.1. Theoretical underpinnings of public relations Excellence Theory of public relations The excellence theory is a general theory of public relations that resulted from a 15-year study of best practices in communication management funded by the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) Research Foundation. Three books were published from the research (J. E. Grunig 1992; Dozier et al. 1995; L. A. Grunig et al. 2002). This general theory incorporates a number of middle-range theories of public relations, including theories of publics, public relations and strategic management, models of public relations, evaluation of public relations, employee communication, public relations roles, gender, diversity, power, activism, ethics and social responsibility, and global public relations (Public Relations Evaluation). The theory was tested through survey research of heads of public relations, CEOs, and employees in Page 58 of 66
- 59. 327 organizations (corporations,nonprofit organizations, government agencies, and associations) in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. The excellence theory first explained the value of public relations to organizations and society based on the social responsibility of managerial decisions and the quality of relationships with stakeholder publics. For an organization to be effective, according to the theory, it must behave in ways that solve the problems and satisfy the goals of stakeholders as well as of management (Stakeholder Theory). If it does not, stakeholders will either pressure the organization to change or oppose it in ways that add cost and risk to organizational policies and decisions. To behave in socially acceptable ways, organizations must scan their environment to identify publics who are affected by potential organizational decisions or who want organizations to make decisions to solve problems that are important to them. Then, organizations must communicate symmetrically with publics (taking the interests of both the organization and publics into account) to cultivate high-quality, long-term relationships with them. Good relationships were of value to organizations because they reduced the costs of litigation, regulation, legislation, and negative publicity caused by poor relationships; reduced the risk of making decisions that affect different stakeholders; or increased revenue by providing products and services needed by stakeholders. Based on this theoretical premise about the value of public relations, the excellence theory derived principles of how the function should be organized to maximize this value. First, the research showed that involvement in strategic management was the critical characteristic of excellent public relations. Public relations executives played a strategic managerial role as well as administrative manager role. Public relations also were empowered by having access to key organizational decision-makers (the dominant coalition). Excellence Theory in Public Relations Second, the study showed that public relations lose its unique role in strategic management if it is sublimated to marketing or other management functions. Sublimation to another function resulted in attention only to the stakeholder category of interest to that function, such as consumers for marketing. Sublimation to marketing also Page 59 of 66
- 60. usually resulted inasymmetrical communication. An excellent public relations function was integrated, however. Programs for different stakeholders were gathered into a single department or coordinated through a senior vice president of corporate communication. An excellent public relations function did work with other management functions to help them build relationships with relevant stakeholders. Third, the excellence study showed that a symmetrical system of internal communication increased employees’ satisfaction with their jobs and with the organization. However, internal communication generally was not practiced unless organizations had a participative rather than authoritarian culture and a decentralized, less stratified (organic) structure rather than a centralized, stratified (mechanical) structure. Fourth, the excellence study examined the effect of the growing number of women in public relations and evidence that women had difficulty entering managerial roles. The research showed that organizations with excellent public relations valued women as much as men for the strategic role and developed programs to empower women throughout the organization. The emphasis on gender also led to inclusion of diversity of race and ethnicity as a fifth part of the excellence theory. This focus, along with the international nature of the project, expanded the theory to make it appropriate for use outside the United States – in diverse cultural, political, and economic contexts. Replication of the study in Slovenia (L. A. Grunig et al. 1998) showed that the excellence theory is generic to many contexts, as long as the theory is applied differently when contextual variables are different. The research in Slovenia also resulted in the addition of ethics to the excellence theory – a sixth component (Public Relations Ethics). Since the completion of the excellence study, scholars in this research tradition have continued to improve and enlarge the theory by conducting research to help public relations professionals participate in strategic decision processes. This research has been on environmental scanning and publics, scenario building, empowerment of public relations, ethics, relationships, the return-on-investment of public relations, evaluation, Page 60 of 66
- 61. relationship cultivation strategies,conflict resolution, complexity theory, specialized areas of public relations, and global strategy (J. E. Grunig 2006; Toth 2007). Generally: Through a combination of survey research and qualitative research, they identified 14 generic principles of excellent public relations, which they later consolidated into ten. So The following are the ten generic principles J. Grunig and his colleagues suggested (Vercic, J. Grunig, & L. Grunig, 1996): 1. Involvement of public relations in strategic management. An organization that practices public relations strategically develops programs to communicate with strategic publics, both external and internal that provide the greatest threats to and opportunities for the organization. Rhee, Y. (2004). The employee-public-organization chain in relationship management: a case study of a government organization. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park. 2. Empowerment of public relations in the dominant coalition or a direct reporting relationship to senior management. In effective organizations, the senior public relations person is part of or has access to the group of senior managers with greatest power in the organization. 3. Integrated public relations function. All public relations functions are integrated into a single department or have a mechanism to coordinate the departments. Only in an integrated system of public relations is it possible for public relations to develop new communication programs for changing strategic publics. 4. Public relations is a management function separate from other functions. Many organizations splinter the public relations function by making it a supporting tool for other departments such as marketing, human resources, law, or finance. When the public relations function is sublimated to other functions, it cannot move communication resources from one strategic public to another as an integrated public relations function can. 5. Public relations unit headed by a manager rather than a technician. Communication technicians are essential to carry out day-to-day communication activities. However, excellent public relations units must have at least one senior communication manager who conceptualizes and directs public relations programs. Page 61 of 66
- 62. 6. Two-way symmetricalmodel of public relations. Two-way symmetrical public relations is based on research and uses communication to manage conflict and improve understanding with strategic publics. Excellent public Rhee, Y. (2004). The employee-public-organization chain in relationship management: a case study of a government organization. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park. relations departments model more of their communication programs on this model than on the press agentry, public information, or two-way asymmetrical models. However, they often combine elements of the two-way symmetrical and asymmetrical models in a “mixed-motive” model. 7. A symmetrical system of internal communication: Excellent organizations have decentralized management structures that give autonomy to employees and allow them to participate in decision making. They also have participative, symmetrical systems of internal communication with employees that increases job satisfaction because employee goals are incorporated into the organizational mission. 8. Knowledge potential for managerial role and symmetrical public relations. Excellent programs are staffed by professional’s people who are educated in the body of knowledge and who are active in professional associations and read professional literature. 9. Diversity embodied in all roles. The principle of requisite variety (Weick, 1969) states that effective organizations have as much diversity inside the organization as in the environment. Excellent public relations include both men and women in all roles, as well as practitioners of different racial, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds. 10. Organizational context for excellence. Excellent public relations departments are nourished by participative rather than authoritarian cultures, activist pressure from the environment, and organic rather than mechanical management structures. (pp. 37–40) Models of public relations One of the most useful ways of thinking about public relations has been through the description of public relations models that identify the central ideas of public relations and how they are related to each other. In 1984 James E. Grunig and Todd Hunt proposed four models of public relations that are based on communication, research, and ethics. Since that time Grunig and a Page 62 of 66
- 63. team of scholarshave proposed new models that have enriched our understanding of how public relations is practiced. The original four models were press agentry, public information, the two-way asymmetrical model, and the two-way symmetrical model.28 The fi rst three models reflect a practice of public relations that attempts through persuasion to achieve the organization’s goals. The fourth focuses on balancing self-interests and the interests of the other group or public. 1. Press agentry: is the model where information moves one way from the organization to its publics. It is perhaps the oldest form of public relations and is synonymous with always looking for opportunities to get their organization’s name favorably mentioned in the media. They do not conduct much research about their publics beyond “counting the house.” This model includes propaganda tactics such as use of celebrity names and attention-gaining devices such as giveaways, parades, and grand openings. Although press agents are not unethical, they don’t desire to be ethical either. The louder the noise, the more attention- getting the story, whether true or face, the better they are doing their jobs. 2. Public information differs from press agentry because the intent is to inform rather than to press for promotion and publicity, but the communication is still essentially one-way. Today this model represents public relations practices in government, educational institutions, nonprofit organizations, and even in some corporations. Practitioners operating under this model do very little research about their audiences beyond testing the clarity of their messages. They are “journalists-in-residence,” who value accuracy but decide what information is best to communicate to their publics. 3. The two-way asymmetrical model considers public relations to be scientific persuasion. This model employs social science research methods to increase the persuasiveness of messages. Public relations practitioners use surveys, interviews, and focus groups to measure public relationships so the organization can design public relations programs that will gain the support of key publics. Although feedback is built into the process, the organization is much more interested in having the publics adjust to the organization than the reverse. 4. The two-way symmetrical model depicts a public relations orientation in which organizations and their publics adjust to each other. It focuses on the use of social science research methods to achieve mutual understanding and two-way communication rather than one-way persuasion. In 2001 James E. Grunig created other names for the symmetrical Page 63 of 66
- 64. model: mixed motives,collaborative advocacy, and cooperative antagonism. His intent was to present a model that “balanced self-interests with the interest of others in a give-and-take process that can waver between advocacy and collaboration.”29 Grunig argued that this model was the most ethical because all groups were part of the resolution of problems. In 1995 David M. Dozier, Larissa A. This depiction of public relations placed the organization and its publics on a continuum. Because in the best practice of public relations, public relations practitioners and their supervisors reported using both two-way symmetrical and two-way asymmetrical models. In short: Press agency/publicity Use one-way communication; uses little research; truth is not important; practiced today by sports, theatre and product promotion. Public information Use information dissemination; one-way communication; truth is important; practiced today by Government, non-profit associations, businesses. Two-way asymmetric Use scientific persuasion; two-way communication but imbalanced; practiced today by competitive business and agencies. Two-way symmetric Use: mutual understanding; two-way communication and balanced; practiced today by regulated business agencies. 6.2. Public Relations Ethics Ethics Ethics are defined as set of moral values held by an individual or group. Ethical conduct is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as being those standards that in accordance with principles of conduct are considered correct, especially those of a given profession or group. Defining ethics is all about giving a systematic analysis of values in various situations; partly, it is the act mind for distinguishing what is right from what is wrong, determining which is just and which is unjust; and deciding which act is fair and which is not. The term ethics also has a lot to do with common values like loyalty, openness, fairness, integrity, honesty and so forth. Page 64 of 66
- 65. Moreover, ethics refersto the value system, in which a person determines what is appropriate and what is not. Sometimes, this can be revealed through moral behavior of the professional in a various situation. Codes of Ethics Code of ethics may contain a few general principles and key values that you may think is necessary even in your common sense. When you hear the word ethics, your mind automatically lists virtues like honest, loyalty, integrity, expertise etc. In promoting these principles, the public relation industry and its professional organizations set a code of conducts to be followed. Code of conduct in PR Every professional body, organization, profession or trade body has written or perceived ethical standards, or codes of conduct, by which it expects its members to abide by. The Institute of Public Relations (IPR) and other major professional associations of PR are no exception. One of the main objectives of these organizations is to set out and establish and sometimes prescribe standards of professional and ethical conduct and ensure the observance of such standards. The code clearly sets out what is, and is not, expected of members in all their dealings. Most professional organizations and many businesses have codes of ethics. These documents also called codes of professional conduct, are supposed to set acceptable norms of behavior for working professionals and employees. Most of the contemporary code of ethics in the area of public relations heavily depends on the major professional associations found in the more developed counties. Even local organizations most adopt the code of conducts that govern the western world after contextualizing it to their respective countries ‘socio-political statuesque. One has no obligation, however, to be a member to adopt or follow the code of conducts. Oftentimes, understanding the most common arbitrary principles and code of ethics might help practitioners for decision making purposes, especially when they face serious ethical dilemmas to deal with in their jobs. The following are extracts from the international public relations association(IPRA). The global alliance for public relations(GAPR) and the public relations society of America(PRSA). Some Common principles and code of ethics Page 65 of 66
- 66. A membershall conduct his or her professional life in accord with the public interest A member shall exemplify high standards of honesty and integrity with carrying out dual obligations to a client or employer and to the democratic process A member shall deal fairly with the public, with past and present clients, and with fellow practitioners giving due respect to the opinions of others A member shall adhere to the highest standards of accuracy and truth avoiding extravagant claims or unfair comparisons and giving credit for ideas and words borrowed from others. A member shall not knowingly disseminate false and misleading information. He/she has to take proper care to check all information prior to its dissemination. A member shall not engage in corrupting the integrity of channels of communication The code also prohibits serving undisclosed interest and forbids also representing conflicting or competing interests and damaging the professional reputation or practice of another practitioner. 6.3. Public Relations and Laws Public relations have its own ethical standard and based on legal boundaries. When we hire an outside firm to-do public relations for your small business being effective in making decision that fall in appropriate ethical and legal boundaries. Ethical practices must consider the employer’s self-interest, the publics self-interest, personal self-interest and the standard of the public relations profession. The public relations professionals must also meet legal standards, as there are ways they can be held legally accountable for their decision and action. Page 66 of 66