So What?
Who Cares?
   Getting Your
 Communications
   Right in 2012
Kivi Leroux Miller




          New Book
            in the            ?
           Works!    Tweeting
                        I’m
                       @ kivilm
We get   3,000 media messages a day.
We pay attention to about 52.

We positively remember about    4.
The rest?


     So What?
    Who Cares?
Which Comes First:
Right Message or
  Right People?




                     flickr.com/photos/marktee/5586165599
Right Message Comes First


  What makes more sense to you?
       Line up based on how
         strongly you feel.
Talk to those on your left and right to
 get yourself in the correct position.


Right People Come First
Quick and Dirty Marketing Plan

• Who are we trying to reach?
  (Or what do we want someone to do?)

• What’s our message to them?
  (Or why should they do it?)

• What’s the best way to deliver that message?
  (Or how do we convince them?)
Find Answers in Right People & Right Message

• What should our
  website look like?
• What kinds of articles
  should we put in our
  newsletter?
• What should we
  emphasize in our
  fundraising?
Your Goals          You
                                              Are
                            Including         Here
                          calls to action



 Content Strategy                                Segmenting
(Responsive, Revealing,                       (Groups of the Right
      Refreshing)                             People to Persuade)




        Personas                                Relevant
                                                Messages
   (Getting to Know the
  Right People as People)                       (Rewarding,
                                            Realistic, Real Time)
Calls to Action
Something Needs to                       Does Your Audience
    Be Done!                            Know Where to Begin?




flickr.com/photos/fusen/2342290882
Typical (Ineffective) Calls to Action
             •   Participate    •   Collaborate
             •   Engage         •   Buy in
             •   Believe        •   Promote
             •   Understand     •   Share
             •   Help           •   Educate
             •   Support        •   Network
             •   Be proactive   •   Connect
             •   Work with us   •   Partner
Or No Call to Action At All!
We Assume It is Obvious, or                 Or We Are
 Maybe That People Are                    Too Shy to Ask
        Psychic




        flickr.com/photos/68726162@N00/
People Need Direction
• They won’t do
  anything unless we
  ask.
• They can’t get there
  without a map.




                         flickr.com/photos/liaw/398748129
Solution 1: Think Visually

                    Can you take
                     a photo or
                       video of
                      someone
                      doing it?
Solution 2: Step 1, Step 2 . . .

                                                          Can you break
                                                          it down into
                                                          simple,
                                                          ordered steps?
flickr.com/photos/atoach/2545233155
Solution 3: Create a Checklist

                         Can you
                         create a
                          short
                        checklist?
Let’s Work on Your
Goals/Calls to Action.
Your Goals
                            Including
                          calls to action
                                                                    You
                                                                    Are
                                                                    Here
 Content Strategy                                Segmenting
(Responsive, Revealing,                       (Groups of the Right
      Refreshing)                             People to Persuade)




        Personas                                Relevant
                                                Messages
   (Getting to Know the
  Right People as People)                       (Rewarding,
                                            Realistic, Real Time)
Who Cares?

Let’s Start with
Segmenting
Everyone should care.
 But they don’t. 
flickr.com/photos/stopdown/2507765030
Forget the “general public.”
Clients
       Volunteers
       Advocates
         Donors
        Funders
        Partners
      Policymakers
     Decisionmakers
          Media
Others Who Influence Your
        Success
Focus on
groups of
people who
are likely to
lean your
way.
Some Possible
Groupings:
•Demographics?
•“Tribes”
•Behaviors
•Stages of
Change
Example: Getting Volunteers & Donors
Groups of People Who Volunteer & Donate

• Retired, but still
  active
• Resume building
• Giving back
• Save the world



                       Flickr: DwightEvansforMayor
How Do We Know This Much?

•   Gut reactions
•   Listening and watching
•   Surveying
•   Online Analytics
•   Asking for
    comments/feedback
    everywhere
Let’s Work on Your
Segments.
Your Goals
                            Including
                          calls to action



 Content Strategy                                Segmenting
(Responsive, Revealing,                       (Groups of the Right
      Refreshing)                             People to Persuade)



                                                                You
                                                                Are
        Personas                                Relevant        Here
                                                Messages
   (Getting to Know the
  Right People as People)                       (Rewarding,
                                            Realistic, Real Time)
So What?

Start with Rewarding,
Realistic & Real Time
Messaging is About Motivating Others



 What are you
 trying to do?
to get som eone else
Framing the Message

  Gross!
  I don’t
care if it’s
 good for
    me!
Messaging That Does Work

REWARDING:
Benefits are clear.

REALISTIC:
Barriers are addressed.

REAL TIME:
Context makes sense.
Rewarding: The Benefit Exchange

• What’s in it for
  them to follow
  through?
• Often an emotional
  payoff
Example: Teens and Smoking
                                             • What are the benefits
                                               of not smoking?
                                             • Do teens care about
                                               them?
                                             • What DO teens care
                                               about?
                                             • How can we relate
                                               what they care about
                                               to not smoking?

.flickr.com/photos/21524179@N08/2419469212
Realistic: Addressing Barriers

                 • Heart overrules
                   head
                 • Convenient?
                 • Easy or difficult?
                 • Costly ($, time)
                 • Stigma?
Example: Health Screenings
• Most women know
  they need Pap
  smears.
• So why don’t they
  get them regularly?
• How can we
  address the barrier
  in our messaging?
Let’s Work on Your
Rewarding Benefits
and Being Realistic
about Barriers.
Real Time: The Context Works
• Know What’s in
  the News
• Look at the
  Calendar




                         flickr.com/photos/katerha/4647339052
JUNE
• First day of Summer!
  – What can kids do during summer break to help
    you? Do things change at your org in summer?
• Father’s Day
  – Who’s the “father” of something related to your
    work? Or who’s been like a father to your org
    lately?
• Your Calendar?
JULY
• Independence Day in the U.S.
  – Who deserves a fireworks celebration of their
    own? Who should celebrate their freedom?
• Bugs!
  – They are everywhere. How do insects play a role in
    your work?
• Your Calendar?
AUGUST
• Dogs Days – Hot Weather
  – How does hot weather affect your work or
    supporters?
• Back to School
  – What are you studying up on now? How do you
    gear up for the fall?
• Your Calendar?
Your Goals
                            Including
                          calls to action



 Content Strategy                                Segmenting
(Responsive, Revealing,                       (Groups of the Right
      Refreshing)                             People to Persuade)



                          You
                          Are
        Personas          Here                  Relevant
                                                Messages
   (Getting to Know the
  Right People as People)                       (Rewarding,
                                            Realistic, Real Time)
Who Cares?

Let’s Develop
Some Personas
Sketch out
personas to
help you
focus.




   flickr.com/photos/rileyroxx/985778569
Affinity (Tribe) + Demographics
•   Gender, age, ethnicity, education
•   What they like – music, TV, politics, celebrities
•   Geotargeting – zip codes, types of retail
•   Other groups they join or support
•   Allegiances and hobbies, strong and weak
    (sports fans, stay-at-home moms, marathon
    runners)
What do these people value?
•   Time
                         •   Fitting In    •   Safety
•   Sleep
                         •   Change        •   Money
•   Convenience
                         •   Self-Help     •   Efficiency
•   Adventure
                         •   Competition   •   Challenge
•   Public recognition
                         •   Action        •   Privacy
•   Good karma
                         •   Formality     •   Connecting
•   Control
                         •   Openness      •   Independence
•   Love
                         •   Pragmatism    •   Teamwork
•   Status
                         •   Cooperation   •   Predictability
•   Power
                         •   Idealism      •   Fun
Visualize Personas within Groups
Add Values to Basic Demographics
               Predictability,
                  Time,           Efficiency,
               Recognition       Good Karma,
                                   Control




                                    Idealism,
                                    Fitting In,
                                       Fun

 Money, Self-Help,
  Convenience
Volunteering: Matching Message to Values

                        •Specific, recurring   •We’ll tailor your
                        tasks that can be      volunteer experience
                        accomplished in a      to your talents.
                        set amount of time     •Give back and get
                        • Personal thank you   results!
                        notes




                                                   •Volunteer with
                                                   friends
                                                   •Facebook
                                                   Group
•Tasks that let you polish your skills             •Socials before
•Flexible weekend and evening hours                or after
•Child care or activities available                volunteering
Donating: Matching Message to Values

                       • Leaving a legacy   • Options for what to
                       (planned giving)     fund
                       • Naming             • Reporting back built
                       opportunities        into gift
                       • PR                 • PR




                                            • Monthly giving
                                            • Events
                                            • Facebook Causes
                                            • Mobile giving

• Monthly giving
• Events (especially with kids)
• Church/Club service projects
Let’s Create Some
Imaginary Friends.
“Why This Matters” Demo:
Let’s Try to Target Some of These
  People with Facebook Ads . . .
Your Goals
                            Including
You                       calls to action
Are
Here

 Content Strategy                                Segmenting
(Responsive, Revealing,                       (Groups of the Right
      Refreshing)                             People to Persuade)




        Personas                                Relevant
                                                Messages
   (Getting to Know the
  Right People as People)                       (Rewarding,
                                            Realistic, Real Time)
So What?
Create Content That’s
Responsive, Revealing
and Refreshing
Responsive Messages
flickr.com/photos/marcinmoga




                               RESPONSIVE MESSAGES:
                               Think of communicating
                               as gift giving.
RESPONSIVE MESSAGES:




                         Flickr: Brittany G
Listen to what your
supporters are saying,
and respond!
RESPONSIVE MESSAGES:
Be a helpful human.
Fill in Blank Headlines
If I'd Only Known: Lessons from __________

How Many of These Early Warning Signs of _________
Do You Recognize?

[Number] Myths that ___________ Believe

How to ________ When You Really Want to _________

[Number] Little _______ That Will _________
Revealing Messages
REVEALING
MESSAGES:
Share New Info
or Insights.




                                                  flickr.com/photos/katemere
                 flickr.com/photos/farleyj/2768941171
flickr.com/photos/katemere
REVEALING MESSAGES:
Take us back stage.
REVEALING: Communications Arcs
• Think Must-See
  TV, Except Now
  It’s Your Content!
• Story Threads
  Over Weeks or
  Months
• Think Beginning,
  Middle, End

                       flickr.com/photos/wonderlane/5351266905
Communications Arc: Strategy

                                                                                                          :     les
                g:                                                                                  id dle Profi
             nin ruitin
                        g
                                                        e:                                      y M idate sues ure                         le:                 d:
           in ec                                     ddl ttles
                                                                                              r                                        i dd e t o           En
        eg                                         i                                      Sto and al Is islat                    yM s                    ry
   r y B at e R                                ry M ry B a                                  - C at i on Leg                  t or s pon s
                                                                                                                            S e                       Sto ction
Sto ndid                                    Sto ma                                                        in                  - R ck A
                                                                                                                                            d
                                                                                                                                                        Ele sults
  Ca                                          Pri                                            - N t i on                              a
                                                                                               -A
                                                                                                   c                            A tt                     Re
                    Filing Deadline (Feb)




                                                                                                                      DNC Convention in
                                                                 Primary Election (May)




                                                                                                                                                    Election Day (Nov)
Fall/Early Winter




                                                                                                                      CLT (early Sept)
Communications Arc: Blogging
Communications Arc: Microsite




    anewwarrior.greenpeace.org
Where are your
communications arcs?
Refreshing Messages
REFRESHING MESSAGES:
Show some personality!
                         flickr.com/photos/uggboy/4100732860
flickr.com/photos/noelzialee




                               REFRESHING MESSAGES: Show us
                               the personal side of your work – think
                               You and I/We.
Fill in Blank Headlines
[Number] Miracles You've Created for _________ This
Year

How Your Support Changed _________ into
___________

Why We Can't _______ Without You
flickr.com/photos/ piccadillywilson
REFRESHING MESSAGES:
Facts are fine, but emotions
drive action.
REFRESHING MESSAGES:
             Express an opinion!




flickr.com/photos/randysonofrobert/393165345
You
                Made It   Your Goals
                Back!
                            Including
                          calls to action



 Content Strategy                                Segmenting
(Responsive, Revealing,                       (Groups of the Right
      Refreshing)                             People to Persuade)




        Personas                                Relevant
                                                Messages
   (Getting to Know the
  Right People as People)                       (Rewarding,
                                            Realistic, Real Time)
What Have You
Learned Today?
Thank You!




             flickr.com/photos/flashpackinglife/6844834841
Kivi Leroux Miller
@kivilm
Facebook.com/
nonprofitmarketingguide

kivi@ecoscribe.com

So What and Who Cares? Nonprofit Messaging Workshop

  • 1.
    So What? Who Cares? Getting Your Communications Right in 2012
  • 2.
    Kivi Leroux Miller New Book in the ? Works! Tweeting I’m @ kivilm
  • 3.
    We get 3,000 media messages a day. We pay attention to about 52. We positively remember about 4. The rest? So What? Who Cares?
  • 4.
    Which Comes First: RightMessage or Right People? flickr.com/photos/marktee/5586165599
  • 5.
    Right Message ComesFirst What makes more sense to you? Line up based on how strongly you feel. Talk to those on your left and right to get yourself in the correct position. Right People Come First
  • 6.
    Quick and DirtyMarketing Plan • Who are we trying to reach? (Or what do we want someone to do?) • What’s our message to them? (Or why should they do it?) • What’s the best way to deliver that message? (Or how do we convince them?)
  • 7.
    Find Answers inRight People & Right Message • What should our website look like? • What kinds of articles should we put in our newsletter? • What should we emphasize in our fundraising?
  • 8.
    Your Goals You Are Including Here calls to action Content Strategy Segmenting (Responsive, Revealing, (Groups of the Right Refreshing) People to Persuade) Personas Relevant Messages (Getting to Know the Right People as People) (Rewarding, Realistic, Real Time)
  • 9.
    Calls to Action SomethingNeeds to Does Your Audience Be Done! Know Where to Begin? flickr.com/photos/fusen/2342290882
  • 10.
    Typical (Ineffective) Callsto Action • Participate • Collaborate • Engage • Buy in • Believe • Promote • Understand • Share • Help • Educate • Support • Network • Be proactive • Connect • Work with us • Partner
  • 11.
    Or No Callto Action At All! We Assume It is Obvious, or Or We Are Maybe That People Are Too Shy to Ask Psychic flickr.com/photos/68726162@N00/
  • 12.
    People Need Direction •They won’t do anything unless we ask. • They can’t get there without a map. flickr.com/photos/liaw/398748129
  • 13.
    Solution 1: ThinkVisually Can you take a photo or video of someone doing it?
  • 14.
    Solution 2: Step1, Step 2 . . . Can you break it down into simple, ordered steps? flickr.com/photos/atoach/2545233155
  • 15.
    Solution 3: Createa Checklist Can you create a short checklist?
  • 16.
    Let’s Work onYour Goals/Calls to Action.
  • 17.
    Your Goals Including calls to action You Are Here Content Strategy Segmenting (Responsive, Revealing, (Groups of the Right Refreshing) People to Persuade) Personas Relevant Messages (Getting to Know the Right People as People) (Rewarding, Realistic, Real Time)
  • 18.
    Who Cares? Let’s Startwith Segmenting
  • 22.
    Everyone should care. But they don’t. 
  • 23.
  • 24.
    Clients Volunteers Advocates Donors Funders Partners Policymakers Decisionmakers Media Others Who Influence Your Success
  • 25.
    Focus on groups of peoplewho are likely to lean your way.
  • 26.
  • 27.
  • 28.
    Groups of PeopleWho Volunteer & Donate • Retired, but still active • Resume building • Giving back • Save the world Flickr: DwightEvansforMayor
  • 29.
    How Do WeKnow This Much? • Gut reactions • Listening and watching • Surveying • Online Analytics • Asking for comments/feedback everywhere
  • 30.
    Let’s Work onYour Segments.
  • 31.
    Your Goals Including calls to action Content Strategy Segmenting (Responsive, Revealing, (Groups of the Right Refreshing) People to Persuade) You Are Personas Relevant Here Messages (Getting to Know the Right People as People) (Rewarding, Realistic, Real Time)
  • 32.
    So What? Start withRewarding, Realistic & Real Time
  • 33.
    Messaging is AboutMotivating Others What are you trying to do? to get som eone else
  • 34.
    Framing the Message Gross! I don’t care if it’s good for me!
  • 35.
    Messaging That DoesWork REWARDING: Benefits are clear. REALISTIC: Barriers are addressed. REAL TIME: Context makes sense.
  • 36.
    Rewarding: The BenefitExchange • What’s in it for them to follow through? • Often an emotional payoff
  • 37.
    Example: Teens andSmoking • What are the benefits of not smoking? • Do teens care about them? • What DO teens care about? • How can we relate what they care about to not smoking? .flickr.com/photos/21524179@N08/2419469212
  • 38.
    Realistic: Addressing Barriers • Heart overrules head • Convenient? • Easy or difficult? • Costly ($, time) • Stigma?
  • 39.
    Example: Health Screenings •Most women know they need Pap smears. • So why don’t they get them regularly? • How can we address the barrier in our messaging?
  • 40.
    Let’s Work onYour Rewarding Benefits and Being Realistic about Barriers.
  • 41.
    Real Time: TheContext Works • Know What’s in the News • Look at the Calendar flickr.com/photos/katerha/4647339052
  • 42.
    JUNE • First dayof Summer! – What can kids do during summer break to help you? Do things change at your org in summer? • Father’s Day – Who’s the “father” of something related to your work? Or who’s been like a father to your org lately? • Your Calendar?
  • 43.
    JULY • Independence Dayin the U.S. – Who deserves a fireworks celebration of their own? Who should celebrate their freedom? • Bugs! – They are everywhere. How do insects play a role in your work? • Your Calendar?
  • 44.
    AUGUST • Dogs Days– Hot Weather – How does hot weather affect your work or supporters? • Back to School – What are you studying up on now? How do you gear up for the fall? • Your Calendar?
  • 45.
    Your Goals Including calls to action Content Strategy Segmenting (Responsive, Revealing, (Groups of the Right Refreshing) People to Persuade) You Are Personas Here Relevant Messages (Getting to Know the Right People as People) (Rewarding, Realistic, Real Time)
  • 46.
  • 47.
    Sketch out personas to helpyou focus. flickr.com/photos/rileyroxx/985778569
  • 48.
    Affinity (Tribe) +Demographics • Gender, age, ethnicity, education • What they like – music, TV, politics, celebrities • Geotargeting – zip codes, types of retail • Other groups they join or support • Allegiances and hobbies, strong and weak (sports fans, stay-at-home moms, marathon runners)
  • 49.
    What do thesepeople value? • Time • Fitting In • Safety • Sleep • Change • Money • Convenience • Self-Help • Efficiency • Adventure • Competition • Challenge • Public recognition • Action • Privacy • Good karma • Formality • Connecting • Control • Openness • Independence • Love • Pragmatism • Teamwork • Status • Cooperation • Predictability • Power • Idealism • Fun
  • 50.
  • 51.
    Add Values toBasic Demographics Predictability, Time, Efficiency, Recognition Good Karma, Control Idealism, Fitting In, Fun Money, Self-Help, Convenience
  • 52.
    Volunteering: Matching Messageto Values •Specific, recurring •We’ll tailor your tasks that can be volunteer experience accomplished in a to your talents. set amount of time •Give back and get • Personal thank you results! notes •Volunteer with friends •Facebook Group •Tasks that let you polish your skills •Socials before •Flexible weekend and evening hours or after •Child care or activities available volunteering
  • 53.
    Donating: Matching Messageto Values • Leaving a legacy • Options for what to (planned giving) fund • Naming • Reporting back built opportunities into gift • PR • PR • Monthly giving • Events • Facebook Causes • Mobile giving • Monthly giving • Events (especially with kids) • Church/Club service projects
  • 54.
  • 55.
    “Why This Matters”Demo: Let’s Try to Target Some of These People with Facebook Ads . . .
  • 56.
    Your Goals Including You calls to action Are Here Content Strategy Segmenting (Responsive, Revealing, (Groups of the Right Refreshing) People to Persuade) Personas Relevant Messages (Getting to Know the Right People as People) (Rewarding, Realistic, Real Time)
  • 57.
    So What? Create ContentThat’s Responsive, Revealing and Refreshing
  • 58.
  • 59.
    flickr.com/photos/marcinmoga RESPONSIVE MESSAGES: Think of communicating as gift giving.
  • 60.
    RESPONSIVE MESSAGES: Flickr: Brittany G Listen to what your supporters are saying, and respond!
  • 61.
  • 62.
    Fill in BlankHeadlines If I'd Only Known: Lessons from __________ How Many of These Early Warning Signs of _________ Do You Recognize? [Number] Myths that ___________ Believe How to ________ When You Really Want to _________ [Number] Little _______ That Will _________
  • 63.
  • 64.
    REVEALING MESSAGES: Share New Info orInsights. flickr.com/photos/katemere flickr.com/photos/farleyj/2768941171
  • 65.
  • 66.
    REVEALING: Communications Arcs •Think Must-See TV, Except Now It’s Your Content! • Story Threads Over Weeks or Months • Think Beginning, Middle, End flickr.com/photos/wonderlane/5351266905
  • 67.
    Communications Arc: Strategy : les g: id dle Profi nin ruitin g e: y M idate sues ure le: d: in ec ddl ttles r i dd e t o En eg i Sto and al Is islat yM s ry r y B at e R ry M ry B a - C at i on Leg t or s pon s S e Sto ction Sto ndid Sto ma in - R ck A d Ele sults Ca Pri - N t i on a -A c A tt Re Filing Deadline (Feb) DNC Convention in Primary Election (May) Election Day (Nov) Fall/Early Winter CLT (early Sept)
  • 68.
  • 69.
    Communications Arc: Microsite anewwarrior.greenpeace.org
  • 70.
  • 71.
  • 72.
    REFRESHING MESSAGES: Show somepersonality! flickr.com/photos/uggboy/4100732860
  • 73.
    flickr.com/photos/noelzialee REFRESHING MESSAGES: Show us the personal side of your work – think You and I/We.
  • 74.
    Fill in BlankHeadlines [Number] Miracles You've Created for _________ This Year How Your Support Changed _________ into ___________ Why We Can't _______ Without You
  • 75.
  • 76.
    REFRESHING MESSAGES: Express an opinion! flickr.com/photos/randysonofrobert/393165345
  • 77.
    You Made It Your Goals Back! Including calls to action Content Strategy Segmenting (Responsive, Revealing, (Groups of the Right Refreshing) People to Persuade) Personas Relevant Messages (Getting to Know the Right People as People) (Rewarding, Realistic, Real Time)
  • 78.
  • 79.
    Thank You! flickr.com/photos/flashpackinglife/6844834841
  • 80.

Editor's Notes

  • #5 Right Message to the Right People at Right Time
  • #7 Don’t jump ahead to #3. It doesn’t work, and people also have the most fear. Start on #1 and #2. Make #3 your job.
  • #10 OK, Something needs to be done. How do we can our target audience to do it? If I told my daughter to clean this kitchen, she ’ d freak out, she wouldn ’ t know where to start. If I told her to start by putting the plates in the dishwasher, she ’ d know where to begin. Do your personas know where to begin?
  • #28 Let’s say we need to get volunteers to work at our community center
  • #29 Based on talking to our volunteers over the years, we have a pretty good sense for why people volunteer, so we’ll organize our first cut at grouping them based on these four motivations. Now let’s look at some of their demographics and create a persona for each one.
  • #34 What are trying to get someone else to do? What is the real call to action here?
  • #35 Once you have identified your target audience and you know who you need to talk to, how do you decide what to say to them? What ’ s your message? “ do the right thing ” is generally not a good message.
  • #37 The Benefit Exchange answers the question, “ What ’ s in it for them? ” What ’ s the payoff for following through on your call to action? In the nonprofit world, it ’ s often an emotional payoff, such as feeling effective, appreciated, powerful, included, heard, validated, relieved, or some other highly valued emotion.  
  • #39 Barriers to your call to action may prevent your target audience from following through, even when the Benefit Exchange is well understood. This is often when our emotions overrule our heads. I know I shouldn ’ t eat that pound of fudge because I want to lose weight, but I ’ m going to anyway because I ’ ve had a hard week and I deserve it!   Take a hard look at your call to action. Is it (honestly) inconvenient, difficult, and expensive to perform? Is it just too hard or confusing? Is there any social stigma attached to what you are asking people to do (What will my husband, neighbor, boss think?)  
  • #51 This is Maria. She is 19 and in her second year at a community college, trying to figure out what she wants to do with her life. One day she’s all about transferring to a 4-year college, the next, she wants to just get an associates degree and start working somewhere. She spends a lot of time online.
  • #61 You’ll learn a great deal from the conversation in social media that you can use to inspire and inform you e-news and web content.  For example, a conversation on Twitter can transform into a new update you send out via your e-newsletter. Blog comments can direct updates to other parts of your website.
  • #62 The story isn’t about you. It’s about being helpful to your supporters, participants, etc.