The nature of memory and encoding

StudentDevelopment Institute
Faculty of Arts, Humanities and Languages
Memory
Submitted to : Em Sophors
Students Kum visal
Hong kimhorn
Sok haksenghai
Pen chorpon
Sovvan mengly
Pen dang
Ser rahman
Batch II, Group II , Year IV, Semester II
Academic year 2017-2018

CONTENTs
I. The Nature of Memory
II. Encoding
III. Memory Storage
A. The Theory of Working Memory
B. Memory’s Contents
IV. Memory Retrieval and Forgetting
V. Memory and Study Strategies

The Nature of Memory
 What is Memory?
 Memory is the retention of information over time.
 Psychologists study how information is initially
placed or encoded into memory, how it is retained or
stored after being encoding, and how it is found or
retrieved for a certain purpose later.

The Nature of Memory
 Exploring Memory
 Human memory is remarkable and allows us to carry
out many feats every day of our lives. However, human
memory also has its imperfections. Although there are
many complex dimensions to memory, thinking about
memory in term of encoding, storage, and retrieval
should help to understand it better.

Encoding
 There are five processes or related idea to encode the
memory
 Rehearsal
 Deep Processing
 Elaboration
 Imagery
 Organization

Encoding
 Rehearsal
Rehearsal is the conscious repetition of information
that increases the length of time that information stays in
memory. Rehearsal works best when we need to remember
a list of numbers or items for a brief time.

Encoding
Deep Processing
The levels of processing theory states that memory
processing occurs on a continuum from shallow to deep,
with deeper processing producing better memory.
Deep processing requires the use of semantic
processing (how words work together to create meaning)
which creates a much stronger memory trace.

Encoding
 Elaboration
The more elaboration involved, the better memory is.
Elaboration is the extensiveness of processing at any given
depth of memory.

Encoding
 Imagery
Memory is stored either as a verbal code or as an
imagine code. Paivio believes that the imagine code
produces better memory because it often is detailed and
distinctive.

Encoding
 Organization
Memory works best when it is organized. Two ways
to do this are hierarchical organization and chunking.
A hierarchical organization is an organizational
structure where every entity in the organization, except
one, is subordinate to a single other entity.
Chunking involves creating something more
meaningful—and therefore memorable—from seemingly
random bits of information.

Memory storage
Memory storage is another way
to explain the process of keeping
information in our brain.

There are 4 types of memory
storage
• Memory’s Time Frames
• Memory’s Contents
• Representing Memory
• The Neurobiological Basis
Memory

Memory’s Time Frames
 We remember some information
for less than a second, some for
half a minute, other information
for minutes, hours, years, even a
lifetime.

In this model, sensory input goes into sensor memory.
Through the process of attention, information moves
into short-term memory, where it remains for 30 seconds or
less, unless it is rehearsed.
Think about all the sights and sounds you encounter as
you walk to class on a typical morning.
Literally thousands of stimuli come into your fields of
vision and hearing-cracks in the sidewalk, chirping birds, a
noisy motorcycle, the blue sky, faces of hundred of people.
Atkinson and Schifrin's Theory of Memory
16

 The first scientific research on sensory focused on iconic
memory
In George Sperling’s (1960) classic study, participants
were presented with patterns of stimuli such as those in finger 6.7.
As you look at the letters, you have no trouble recognizing them.
 Some of the participants in Sperling’s study reported feeling
that, for an instant
They could see all 9 letters within a briefly flash pattern.
But they ran into trouble when they tried to name all the letters
they had initially.
 Sperling decided to test this hypothesis
He reasoned that if all 9 letters were actually processed in
sensory memory, they should all be available for a brief time.
Auditory and Visual Sensory Memory
17

Working or Short-term Memory
 Working Memory is a cognitive system with a
limited capacity that is responsible for
temporarily holding information available for
processing
 Working Memory is important for reasoning
and the guidance of decision making and
behavior.
 Memory Span is the number of digits an
individual can report back in order after a single
presentation.

Theory of Working Memory
Visuo-spactial Central Articulator
Scratchpad Executive loop

Central Executive & Articulatory Loop
 The central executive is a flexible system
responsible for the control and regulation of
cognitive processes.
The articulatory loop (phonological loop) as a whole
deals with sound or phonological information.
 It consists of two part: a short term phonological
store with auditory memory traces that are subject to
rapid decay and articulatory loop that can revive the
memory traces.

Visuo-spatial Scratchpad
 Alan Baddeley's theory of working memory has
yet another aspect to which memory can be stored
short term.
 The visuo-spatial sketchpad is this store that
holds visual information for manipulation.
 The visuo-spatial sketchpad is thought to be its
own storage of working memory in that it does
not interfere with the short term processes of the
phonological loop.

Long-Term Memory
• Long term Memory is memory that huge amounts of
information for a long period of time.

Memory’s Contents
The contents of sensory memory have the memory
for Auduition (echoic memory) and Vision (iconic
Memory).
The contents of working memory are at least 2 kinds
of content and the first is Articulatory Loop (hold
information and speech) which the second is
Visuospatial Scratchpad (mental images)

Declarative and Non-declarative Memory
• Declarative Memory or explicit memory is the
conscious recollection of information ( specific
events or facts in human)
• Non-declarative Memory is memory that
behavior is affected by prior experience
without consciously recollect the experience.

Episodic and Semantic Memory
Episodic Memory is the retention of
information about the where and when of
life’s happening.
Semantic Memory is a person’s knowledge of
words, famous individuals, important places
and common things.

Summary Memory Retrieval & Forgetting
Long-term memory
- Tip-of-the-tongue: this occurs when we can’t quite pull
something out of memory.
- serial position effect: this influences retrieval, which is
superior for items at the beginning of a list and at the end of a
list.
- retrieval cues and the retrieval task: a key factor that
makes retrievals effortful is the absence of effective cues.
Autobiographical memory
- nature: this refer to a person’s recollections of his or her
life experience. Autobiographical memory has tree level:
1. life time period
2. general events,
3. event-specific knowledge.

 Emotional memories
- flashbulb memories: these are memories of emotionally
significant events that people often recall with considerable accuracy
and vivid imagery.
- personal traumas: it also is usually more accurate than
memory for ordinary events, but it too is subject to some distortion
and inaccuracy.
- repressed memories: repression doesn’t erase a memory, it
just makes it extremely difficult to remember consciously.
- mood-congruent memory: this Principe state that people
tend to remember information better when their mood is similar
during encoding and retrieval.

 Forgetting
- Ebbinghuaus’Pioneering discovered that his forgetting was
rapid and extensive.
-Interference theory states that we forget not because
memories are actually lost from storage but because other
information gets in the way of what we want to remember. Decay
theory argues that when something new is learned, a memory trace is
formed but, as time passes ,this trace tends to deteriorate.
- Amnesia: it involves extreme memory deficits and comes
in two forms
1. Anterograde Amnesia: is a memory disorder that
prevents the retention of new information and events.
2. Retrograde Amnesia: is a memory disorder that involves
memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new event.

I. Memory and Study the strategies
Memory and study the strategies
Taking Notes

Effective Strategies
 Paying attention and minimize Distraction
Understanding the material
Well-prepared what you put into memory
Using Mnemonic Strategies
Asking yourself questions
Spreading out the consolidating learning
Cognitively monitor your progress
Managing time effectively

Taking Good Notes
 Being Prepared
Making the Best Notes Possible
Reviewing Your Notes
Retrieved form http://www.wikihow.com/Take-Better-Notes

PQ4R Method
The PQ4R method is a study method based on the
work of educational psychologist Francis P.
Preview
 Question
 Read
 Reflect
 Recite
 Review

The nature of memory and encoding

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