Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors - Appendix

Appendix 1. The Hazards of Using Energy: 

Some energy-related accidents since 1975 

Appendix 2. Serious nuclear reactor accidents

Serious accidents in military, research and commercial reactors. All except Browns Ferry and Vandellos involved damage to or malfunction of the reactor core. At Browns Ferry a fire damaged control cables and resulted in an 18-month shutdown for repairs, at Vandellos a turbine fire made the 17-year old plant uneconomic to repair. 

 (The well publicised accident at Tokai-mura, Japan, in 1999 was at a fuel preparation plant for experimental reactors, and killed two people from radiation exposure. Many other such criticality accidents have occurred, some fatal, and practically all in military facilities prior to 1980.) 

Appendix 3 Nuclear Energy Institute briefing on Nuclear Plant Security:

Extensive security measures protect U.S. nuclear plants from sabotage. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations require nuclear power plants to take adequate measures to protect the public from the possibility of exposure to radioactive release caused by acts of sabotage. These measures include:

• the physical construction of the containment building for the reactor,
• security personnel, procedures, and surveillance equipment, and
• security clearance background checks and daily monitoring for plant employees.

 Reactor containment buildings are designed to be impervious to catastrophes. Nuclear power plants containment buildings, in which the reactors are located, are extremely robust. Reinforced concrete containment structures, coupled with multiple, redundant safety and plant shutdown systems, have been designed to withstand the impact of hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, and airborne objects up to a certain force. Design requirements with respect to aircraft impacts are specific to each facility. 

 Fortified physical barriers at nuclear plants resist penetration. For a release of radiation to occur, several layers of protection must be penetrated, including the containment structure, which is typically protected by about 1.2 metres (4 ft) of reinforced concrete with a steel liner, and the reactor vessel, which is made of steel that is about 150mm (6 inches) in thickness. 

 Armed security force and advanced surveillance equipment protect each nuclear plant. Every nuclear plant deploys armed security guards on the grounds of the plant around the clock. These highly trained security personnel are assisted in their work by sophisticated electronic surveillance equipment that scans the area surrounding the plant. 

 Nuclear plant security forces and procedures continually tested in mock drills. Federal regulations require that the industry demonstrate it can protect against a threat by a well-trained paramilitary force intent on forcing its way into a nuclear power plant to commit sabotage, armed with automatic weapons and explosives, with the assistance of an insider who could pass along information and help the attackers. In mock drills conducted periodically under NRC supervision and evaluation, highly skilled, professionally trained intruders make direct frontal attacks on the nuclear plants. They are provided with all information about the plant including the location of and pathway to vital equipment, as if they had been previously informed by an insider, and proceed to attempt to reach the equipment to disable it. If a drill the energy company chooses to stage is not sufficiently rigorous, the company would be cited for a violation of NRC regulations. The NRC evaluates the efficiency of the plant's security measures, and any necessary enhancements are implemented. 

 Nuclear plant personnel procedures protect from internal threats. All nuclear power plants have programs that protect against the potential threat that plant personnel may be, or may aid, terrorists. New employees and contractor employees must pass stringent background checks regarding employment, education, and criminal histories as well as drug and alcohol screening tests and psychological evaluations. Anyone appearing to be under the influence of drugs or alcohol, or exhibiting erratic behavior, will be immediately removed from the work area for evaluation. In addition, the NRC requires energy companies to conduct random drug and alcohol tests of at least 50 percent of all employees annually. Nuclear plant employees are also subject to continual behavioral observation programs by trained supervisors and are provided counseling for job-related issues or unusual behavior. 

 FBI: nuclear plants are "hardened" targets. Because of the industry's security programs and the defense in depth safety strategy, the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation classifies nuclear power plants as "hardened" targets. NRC Commissioner Edward McGaffigan said recently, "There are threats to the nation. But outside the military, [the nuclear energy] industry is probably the best at protecting its assets" (March 3, 1999).