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. 2013 Jan;3(1):19-62.
doi: 10.1038/kisup.2012.64.

Chapter 1: Definition and classification of CKD

No authors listed

Chapter 1: Definition and classification of CKD

No authors listed. Kidney Int Suppl (2011). 2013 Jan.
No abstract available

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Figures

Figure 2
Figure 2
Normal values for GFR by age. GFR is shown for men (Panel a) and women (Panel b) of various ages, with the GFR measured as the urinary clearance of inulin. The horizontal line indicates a GFR value of 60 ml/min/1.73 m2, which is the threshold for the definition of CKD. Solid lines represent the mean value of GFR per decade of age, and dashed lines represent the value 1 SD from the mean value of GFR per decade of age. CKD, chronic kidney disease; GFR, glomerular filtration rate; SD, standard deviation. Adapted with permission from Wesson L. Physiology of the Human Kidney. Grune & Stratton: New York, 1969.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Relationship of eGFR with mortality. HRs and 95% CIs for all-cause (a) and cardiovascular mortality (c) according to spline eGFR. HRs and 95% CIs (shaded areas) are adjusted for ACR, age, sex, ethnic origin, history of CVD, systolic BP, diabetes, smoking, and total cholesterol. The reference (diamond) was eGFR 95 ml/min/1.73 m2 and ACR 5 mg/g (0.6 mg/mmol), respectively. Circles represent statistically significant and triangles represent not significant. ACR, albumin-to-creatinine ratio; BP, blood pressure; CI, confidence interval; CVD, cardiovascular disease; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; HR, hazard ratio. Reprinted from The Lancet, vol 375, Matshushita K, van de Velde M, Astor BC, et al.4 Association of estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in general population cohorts: a collaborative meta-analysis, p. 2073-2081, 2010, with permission from Elsevier; accessed http://download.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140673610606745.pdf
Figure 4
Figure 4
Relationship of albuminuria with mortality. HRs and 95% CIs for all-cause (b) and cardiovascular mortality (d) according to ACR. HRs and 95% CIs (shaded areas) are adjusted for age, sex, ethnic origin, history of CVD, systolic BP, diabetes, smoking, and total cholesterol and spline eGFR. The reference (diamond) was ACR 5 mg/g (0.6 mg/mmol) and eGFR 95 ml/min/1.73 m2, respectively. Circles represent statistically significant and triangles represent not significant. ACR plotted in mg/g. To convert ACR in mg/g to mg/mmol multiply by 0.113. Approximate conversions to mg/mmol are shown in parentheses. ACR, albumin-to-creatinine ratio; BP, blood pressure; CI, confidence interval; CVD, cardiovascular disease; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; HR, hazard ratio. Reprinted from The Lancet, vol 375, Matshushita K, van de Velde M, Astor BC, et al.4 Association of estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in general population cohorts: a collaborative meta-analysis, p. 2073-2081, 2010, with permission from Elsevier; accessed http://download.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140673610606745.pdf
Figure 5
Figure 5
Age-standardized rates of death from any cause (panel a), cardiovascular events (panel b), and hospitalization (panel c), according to the eGFR among 1,120,295 ambulatory adults. eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate. From N Engl J Med, Go AS, Chertow GM, Fan D, et al. Chronic kidney disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization, 351: 1296-1305. Copyright © (2004) Massachusetts Medical Society. Reprinted with permission from Massachusetts Medical Society; accessed http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJMoa041031
Figure 6
Figure 6
Summary of continuous meta-analysis (adjusted RRs) for general population cohorts with ACR. Mortality is reported for general population cohorts assessing albuminuria as urine ACR. Kidney outcomes are reported for general population cohorts assessing albuminuria as either urine ACR or reagent strip. eGFR is expressed as a continuous variable. The three lines represent urine ACR of <30, 30-299 and ≥300 mg/g (<3, 3-29, and ≥30 mg/mmol, respectively) or reagent strip negative and trace, 1+ positive, ≥2+ positive. All results are adjusted for covariates and compared to reference point of eGFR of 95 ml/min/1.73 m2 and ACR of <30 mg/g (<3 mg/mmol) or reagent strip negative (diamond). Each point represents the pooled RR from a meta-analysis. Solid circles indicate statistical significance compared to the reference point (P <0.05); triangles indicate non-significance. Red arrows indicate eGFR of 60 ml/min/1.73 m2, threshold value of eGFR for the current definition of CKD. ACR, albumin-to-creatinine ratio; CKD, chronic kidney disease; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; HR, hazard ratio; OR, odds ratio, RR, relative risk. Reprinted with permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Kidney International. Levey AS, de Jong PE, Coresh J, et al. The definition, classification, and prognosis of chronic kidney disease: a KDIGO controversies conference report. Kidney Int 2011; 80: 17-28; accessed http://www.nature.com/ki/journal/v80/n1/full/ki2010483a.html
Figure 7
Figure 7
Summary of categorical meta-analysis (adjusted RRs) for general population cohorts with ACR. Mortality is reported for general population cohorts assessing albuminuria as urine ACR. Kidney outcomes are reported for general population cohorts assessing albuminuria as either urine ACR or reagent strip. eGFR and albuminuria are expressed as categorical variables. All results are adjusted for covariates and compared to the reference cell (Ref). Each cell represents a pooled RR from a meta-analysis; bold numbers indicate statistical significance at P <0.05. Incidence rates per 1000 person-years for the reference cells are 7.0 for all-cause mortality, 4.5 for CVD mortality, 0.04 for kidney failure, 0.98 for AKI, and 2.02 for CKD progression. Colors reflect the ranking of adjusted RR. The point estimates for each cell were ranked from 1 to 28 (the lowest RR having rank number 1, and the highest number 28). The categories with a rank number 1-8 are green, rank numbers 9-14 are yellow, the rank numbers 15-21 are orange and the rank numbers 22-28 are colored red. (For the outcome of CKD progression, two cells with RR <1.0 are also green, leaving fewer cells as yellow, orange and red). ACR, albumin-to-creatinine ratio; AKI, acute kidney injury; CKD, chronic kidney disease; CVD, cardiovascular disease; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; ESRD, end-stage renal disease; RR, relative risk. Reprinted with permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Kidney International. Levey AS, de Jong PE, Coresh J, et al. The definition, classification, and prognosis of chronic kidney disease: a KDIGO controversies conference report. Kidney Int 2011; 80: 17-28; accessed http://www.nature.com/ki/journal/v80/n1/full/ki2010483a.html
Figure 8
Figure 8
Prevalence of CKD in the USA by GFR and albuminuria. Cells show the proportion of adult population in the USA. Data from the NHANES 1999-2006, N=18,026. GFR is estimated with the CKD-EPI equation and standardized serum creatinine. Albuminuria is determined by one measurement of ACR and persistence is estimated as described elsewhere. Values in cells do not total to values in margins because of rounding. Category of very high albuminuria includes nephrotic range. Green, low risk (if no other markers of kidney disease, no CKD); Yellow, moderately increased risk; Orange, high risk; Red, very high risk. ACR, albumin-to-creatinine ratio; CKD, chronic kidney disease; CKD-EPI, CKD Epidemiology Collaboration; GFR, glomerular filtration rate; NHANES, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Modified with permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Kidney International. Levey AS, de Jong PE, Coresh J, et al. The definition, classification, and prognosis of chronic kidney disease: a KDIGO controversies conference report. Kidney Int 2011; 80: 17-28; accessed http://www.nature.com/ki/journal/v80/n1/full/ki2010483a.html
Figure 9
Figure 9
Prognosis of CKD by GFR and albuminuria category. Green, low risk (if no other markers of kidney disease, no CKD); Yellow, moderately increased risk; Orange, high risk; Red, very high risk. CKD, chronic kidney disease; GFR, glomerular filtration rate; KDIGO, Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes. Modified with permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Kidney International. Levey AS, de Jong PE, Coresh J, et al. The definition, classification, and prognosis of chronic kidney disease: a KDIGO controversies conference report. Kidney Int 2011; 80: 17-28; accessed http://www.nature.com/ki/journal/v80/n1/full/ki2010483a.html
Figure 10
Figure 10
Determinants of the serum level of endogenous filtration markers. The plasma level (P) of an endogenous filtration marker is determined by its generation (G) from cells and diet, extrarenal elimination (E) by gut and liver, and urinary excretion (UV) by the kidney. Urinary excretion is the sum of filtered load (GFR X P), tubular secretion (TS), and reabsorption (TR). In the steady state, urinary excretion equals generation and extrarenal elimination. By substitution and rearrangement, GFR can be expressed as the ratio of the non-GFR determinants (G, TS, TR, and E) to the plasma level. GFR, glomerular filtration rate. Reprinted with permission of American Society of Nephrology, Measured GFR as a confirmatory test for estimated GFR, Stevens LA, Levey AS. J Am Soc Nephrol 20: 2305-2313, 2009; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.; accessed http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/20/11/2305.full.pdf
Figure 11
Figure 11
Performance of the CKD-EPI and MDRD Study equations in estimating measured GFR in the external validation data set. Both panels show the difference between measured and estimated versus estimated GFR. A smoothed regression line is shown with the 95% CI (computed by using the lowest smoothing function in R), using quantile regression, excluding the lowest and highest 2.5% of estimated GFR. To convert GFR from ml/min per 1.73 m2 to ml/s per m2, multiply by 0.0167. CKI-EPD, Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration; CI, confidence interval; GFR, glomerular filtration rate; MDRD, Modification of Diet in Renal Disease. Reprinted with permission from Levey AS, Stevens LA, Schmid CH, et al. A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate. Ann Intern Med 2009; 150(9): 604-612.
Figure 12
Figure 12
Comparison of distribution of GFR and CKD prevalence by age (NHANES 1999-2004). GFR was categorized on the basis of the classification system established by the NKF-KDOQI. Top. Distribution of estimated GFR, by 4-ml/min per 1.73 m2 categories. Values are plotted at the midpoint. Bottom. Prevalence of CKD, by age. CKD, chronic kidney disease; GFR, glomerular filtration rate; NKF-KDOQI, National Kidney Foundation-Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative; NHANES, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Reprinted with permission from Levey AS, Stevens LA, Schmid CH, et al. A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate. Ann Intern Med 2009; 150(9): 604-612.
Figure 13
Figure 13
Meta-analysis of NRI for all-cause mortality, CVD mortality, and ESRD. NRI summarizes the risk of clinical outcomes among participants who are reclassified from one estimated GFR category using the MDRD Study equation to another estimated GFR category using the CKD-EPI equation compared with those who are not reclassified. NRI greater than zero favors the CKD-EPI equation. NRI less than zero favors the MDRD Study equation. The sizes of the data markers are proportional to the inverse of the variance of the NRIs. CKD-EPI, Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration; CVD, cardiovascular disease; ESRD, end-stage renal disease; GFR, glomerular filtration rate; MDRD, Modification of Diet in Renal Disease; NRI, net reclassification improvements. Reprinted with permission from Matsushita K, Mahmoodi BK, Woodward M, et al. Comparison of risk prediction using the CKD-EPI equation and the MDRD Study equation for estimated glomerular filtration rate. JAMA 2012; 307(18): 1941-1951. Copyright © (2012) American Medical Association. All rights reserved.
Figure 14
Figure 14
Association of CKD definitions with all-cause mortality and ESRD. CKD, chronic kidney disease; ESRD, end-stage renal disease. Reprinted with permission from Peralta CA, Shlipak MG, Judd S, et al. Detection of chronic kidney disease with creatinine, cystatin C, and urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio and association with progression to end-stage renal disease and mortality. JAMA 2011; 305(15): 1545-1552. Copyright © (2011) American Medical Association. All rights reserved.
Figure 15
Figure 15
Performance of three equations for estimating GFR. Panel a shows the median difference between measured and estimated GFR. The bias is similar with the equation using creatinine alone, the equation using cystatin C alone, and the combined creatinine–cystatin C equation. Panel b shows the accuracy of the three equations with respect to the percentage of estimates that were greater than 30% of the measured GFR (1 – P30). Whiskers indicate 95% confidence intervals. GFR, glomerular filtration rate; P30, percentage of estimated GFR values within 30% of measured GFR. From N Engl J Med, Inker LA, Schmid CH, Tighiouart H, et al. Estimating glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine and cystatin C. 367: 20-29. Copyright © 2012 Massachusetts Medical Society. Reprinted with permission from Massachusetts Medical Society.
Figure 16
Figure 16
Suggested protocol for the further investigation of an individual demonstrating a positive reagent strip test for albuminuria/proteinuria or quantitative albuminuria/proteinuria test. Reagent strip device results should be confirmed using laboratory testing of the ACR on at least two further occasions. Patients with two or more positive (≥30 mg/g or ≥3 mg/mmol) tests on early morning samples 1-2 weeks apart should be diagnosed as having persistent albuminuria. The possibility of postural proteinuria should be excluded by the examination of an EMU. PCR measurement can be substituted for the ACR but is insensitive in the detection of moderately increased albuminuria/proteinuria. Approximate PCR equivalent to an ACR of 30 mg/mmol is 50 mg/mmol. ACR, albumin-to-creatinine ratio; C&S, culture and sensitivity; CKD, chronic kidney disease; EMU, early morning urine; MSU, mid-stream urine; PCR, protein-to-creatinine ratio. aConsider other causes of increased ACR (e.g., menstrual contamination, uncontrolled hypertension, symptomatic urinary tract infection, heart failure, other transitory illnesses, and strenuous exercise), especially in the case of type 1 diabetes present for less than 5 years. The presence of hematuria may indicate non-diabetic renal disease. This figure was published and adapted from Lamb EJ, Price CP. Kidney function tests, in Tietz Textbook of Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics, eds Burtis CA, Ashwood E, Bruns DE, 5th edition, pp 669-708, 2012. Copyright Elsevier.
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References

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