The Untold Stories of Yugoslavia and Nonalignment

Irwin, Zachary

doi:10.1057/978-1-137-59743-4_5

Zachary Irwin³

391 Accesses

Abstract

A recently declassified collection of US intelligence estimates concerning Yugoslavia offers some promise of new information. Similarly, the memoirs of statesmen reveal a good of anecdotal information that may revise such standard works as Alvin Rubinstein’s Yugoslavia and the Non-aligned World. This book and others written about 40 years ago form the basis of our understanding of nonalignment as a historic movement. It is likely that this literature and the voluminous public material produced by the movement’s supporters like Yugoslavia can prompt reconsideration. Indeed, any reexamination of socialist Yugoslavia more than 20 years after its collapse is likely to create a different perspective on the relatively complex diplomatic questions that constitute “nonalignment” as we understand it.

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OSBORNE, Milton

Epilogue: The Baghdad Set

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Notes

1.
Alvin Z. Rubinstein, Yugoslavia and the Non-aligned World, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969).
2.
John W. Burton, International Relations: A General Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965), p. 274.
3.
Pranay Gupte, “Nonalignment Needs Realignment,” New York Times, 24 October 1985, p. A27.
4.
Andrew Baruch Wachtel, The Balkan’s in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 119.
5.
Elie Podeh, “The drift towards neutrality: Egyptian foreign policy during the early Nasserist Era, 1952–55,” Middle Eastern Studies 32, no. 1 (January 1996): 164.
6.
Anne Alexander, Nasser (London: Haus Publishing, 2004), 78–79.
7.
Robert B. Rakove, “A Genuine Departure: Kennedy, Johnson and the Non-aligned World,” Ph. D Thesis, Department of History, University of Virgina, 2008, p. 281.
8.
“[Enver] Hoxha, Report to the Fourth Congress of the PPSh” (excerpts), Zeri I Populit 14 February 1961, in William E. Griffith, Albania and the Sino-Soviet Rift (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1963), p. 210.
9.
“Telegram from the Albanian Ambassador in Cairo, Delo Balili, to the Ministry of Albanian Affairs of Albania,” 7 June 1961, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/110161
10.
Ibid.
11.
“Belgrade Declaration of Non-aligned Countries, 1961,” http://pustakahpi.kemlu.go.id/dir_dok/01st%20Summit%20of%20the%20Non-Aligned%20Movement%20-%20Final%20Document%20(Belgrade_Declaration).pdf
12.
“Soviet Nuclear Test Summary,” http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/Sovtestsum.html and “Tsar Bomba,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsar_Bomba
13.
“Telegram from an Official of the Albanian Embassy in Beijing Lilo Zeneli to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Albania,” 6 June 1961, digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/110168.
14.
Pravda, 27 October 1961, cited in Ibid., p. 90.
15.
Open Society Archive, Box 59-1-4, “Attitudes towards the Belgrade Conference,” http://osaarchivum.org/files/holdings/300/8/3/text/59-1-4.shtml
16.
“Telegram from the Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs Vasil Nathanalili to the Albanian Embassy in Belgrade”, 15 June 1961, Wilson Center Digital Archive, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/110166
17.
“Telegram from the Albanian Ambassador in Belgrade, Tahmaz Beqari, to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Albania,” 3 September 1961, Wilson, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/110540
18.
“Telegram from the Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs Vasil Nathanalili to the Albanian Embassy in Belgrade”, 15 June 1961, Wilson Center Digital Archive, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/110166
19.
Albanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Report on the First and Second Non-Aligned Conferences,” 26 June 1964, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/110537
20.
“Telegram from Haxhi Lleshi to Gamal Abdel Nasser,” 21 September 1968, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/110541
21.
“Progress Report on ‘United States Policy towards Yugoslavia” (NSC 5601), approved by the President 24 January 1956 for the period 24 January–31 July 1956. In From National Communism to National Collapse, compiled by Mircea Munteanu, A CWIHP Document Reader (Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, December 2006), p. 3.
22.
Ibid., p. 5.
23.
H.W. Brands, The Spectre of Neutralism: the United States and the Emergence of the Third World, 1947–1960,” New York: Columbia University Press, 1989), p. 309.
24.
Memorandum of Discussion at the 298th Meeting of the National Security Council, 27 September 1956, Item 287.
25.
Robert F. Miller, Khrushchev and the Communist World (London: Croom Helm, 1984).
26.
“Telegram from the Embassy in Yugoslavia to the Department of State, Document 391, 8 June 1961, Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), vol. XVI, Eastern Europe, Cyprus, Greece and Turkey Document 91, p. 189.
27.
John Lewis Gaddis, George Kennan: An American Life (New York: Penguin Press, 2011), p. 560.
28.
Kennan wrote “Tito’s statements on Berlin and on Soviet resumption of tests came as deep disappointment to Western observers here, including myself. Passage on Berlin contains no word that could not have been written by Khrushchev; and that on testing, leading off with reproach to French and accepting in full Soviet explanations for resumption, is weaker and more pro-Soviet than even those of Nasser and Nkrumah.” “Telegram from the Embassy in Yugoslavia to the Department of State” 3 September 1961, Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), vol. XVI, Document 96, p. 202, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v16/d96
29.
Letter from the Assistant Secretary of State for European Affairs (Kohler) to the Ambassador to Yugoslavia (Kennan), 12 October 1961, in From National Communism to National Collapse, Item 119.
30.
David Mayers, George Kennan and the Dilemmas of US Foreign Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 210. “Telegram from the Embassy of Yugoslavia to the Department of State,” 26 September 1961, Document 99, FRUS, vol. XVI, p. 209, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v16/d99
31.
“Telegram from the Embassy in Yugoslavia to the Department of State,”14 November 1961, Document 108, FRUS, 1961, vol. XVI, p. 232, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v16/d108
32.
Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Current Intelligence Memorandum, “The Nonaligned Nations Conference,” 7 August 1961 in From National Communism to National Collapse, Item 120.
33.
John Lewis Gaddis, Kennan, p. 561.
34.
David Mayers, George Kennan and the Dilemmas of US Foreign Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 214.
35.
Vladimar N. Pregelj “Most-Favored-Nation (Normal Trade Relations) Policy of the United States,” in Foreign Policy of the United States, vol. I, edited by Ernest Simone (Huntington, NY: Nova Science Publishers, 2000), pp. 67–68.
36.
“Airgram from the Embassy in Yugoslavia to the Department of State,” 28 November 1962, Item 140, Mircea Munteanu, From National Communism to National Collapse.
37.
Dean Rusk, “Status of Trade Relations with Yugoslavia and Cuba,” Department of State Bulletin, vol. XLVI, no. 1183 (February 1962), p. 347, http://archive.org/stream/departmentofstat461962unit#page/346/mode/2up
38.
Josep Broz Tito. Archives, KPR 1-3-a United States of America, Visit of Richard Nixon 9.30-102.1970, Document #155,156,157 in Mircea Munteanu, From National Communism to National Collapse.
39.
Roy Allison, The Soviet Union and the Strategy of Non-alignment in the Third World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981–1988), pp. 29–31. The rival Chinese organization met in January 1966 in Havana and, in the words of the Chinese, “It was a damning exposure and heavy defeat for the new Soviet leaders’ capitulationist and divisive schemes.” The First Afro-Asian Latin American Peoples’ Solidarity Conference, Peking Review, no. 4 (January 21, 1966), pp. 19–25, http://www.marxists.org/subject/china/peking-review/1966/PR1966-04h.htm
40.
Roy Allison, The Soviet Union and the Strategy of Non-alignment in the Third World, p. 61.
41.
Slobodan Stankovic “Belgrade Daily Criticizes Soviet Reporting of Brezhnev-Tito Meeting”, RAD Background Report 251, Radio Free Europe Research, 7 (December 1976), http://www.osaarchivum.org/greenfield/repository/osa:2e3cf900-9ae3-4ad7-8fb0-b3da9bcc90af
42.
The Soviet approach at the Algiers Conference and subsequently is described in Richard H. Schiltz Jr., The Soviet Union and Revolutionary Warfare (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1988), pp. 175–177.
43.
Foud Ajami, “The Fate of Nonalignment,” Foreign Affairs 59, no. 2 (Winter 1980): 380.
44.
Fareed Zakaria, “The Rise of Illiberal Democracy,” Foreign Affairs 76, no. 6 (November–December 1997): 22–43.
45.
New York Times, 9 September 1979 http://search.proquest.com/docview/120755977/fulltextPDF?accountid=13158
46.
“USA—Developing Countries and the Nonaligned Countries,” Attachment no. 4, 22 July 1975, Josip Broz Tito Archives, KPR 1-3-a USA Visit of Gerald Ford, Document no. 167, in Mircea Munteanu, From National Communism to National Collapse.
47.
“The Nonaligned Movement at the Havana Summit, an Intelligence Assessment,” 17 August 1979, Document no. 178, in Mircea Munteanu, From National Communism to National Collapse.
48.
Raif Dizdarevic, La Morte Di Tito, la Morte Della Yugoslavia (Ravenna: Longo Edittore, 2001), p. 43.
49.
Zachary T. Irwin, “Yugoslavia’s Nonalignment in the 1980s,” Yugoslavia in the 1980s, Edited by Pedro Ramet, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1985, p. 258.
50.
Chris Martin and Laura D’ Andrea Tyson, “Can Titoism Survive Tito? Economic Problems and Policy Choices Confronting Tito’s Successors,” Yugoslavia in the 1980s, Edited by Pedro Ramet, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1985, p. 188.
51.
Mojmir Mrak, Debt Conversions in Yugoslavia, Working Paper #54, OECD Development Center, February 1992, p. 50 http://www.oecd.org/development/pgd/1919414.pdf
52.
Peter Willetts, The Nonaligned in Havana, Documents at the Sixth Conference and their Significance for the Global Political System (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1981), p. 160.
53.
Tanjug, October 23, 1981. in Daily Report, FBIS, EEU 81-206, 26 October 1981, http://infoweb.newsbank.com/iw-search/we/HistArchive/?p_product=FBISX&p_theme=fbis&p_nbid=K63I58ERMTM3MTQ5MzczMC45MDAzODA6MToxNDoxNDYuMTg2LjUzLjE2OQ&p_action=doc&s_lastnonissuequeryname=10&p_queryname=10&p_docref=v2:11C33B0D5F860D98@FBISX-1256B4583B0279D0@2444904-1256B46C6FAD1FB8@75&p_docnum=3
54.
Borba, 16 August 1981. Translated in Daily Report, FBIS-EEU-81-160, p. 16, http://infoweb.newsbank.com/iw-search/we/HistArchive/?p_product=FBISX&p_theme=fbis&p_nbid=L51O4APDMTM3MTE1NjgxNi4zNDU1MDQ6MToxNDoxNDYuMTg2LjUzLjE2OQ&p_action=doc&p_queryname=2&p_docref=v2%3A11C33B0D5F860D98%40FBISX-124E527DD9E0E0C0%402444836-124E528BAA8C70D8-124E528BD2B62940&f
55.
Miloš Minić,“ Lasting Components for the Political Orientation of the Policy of Nonalignment,” in Review of International Affairs (Belgrade), 5–20 August, 1979, p. 27.
56.
Mauputo Domestic Service, 8 January 1981, translated in FBIS, Daily Report (Middle East and Africa) FBIS-MEA-006, 9 January, 1981 pg U-1 See also “Mozambique-Bulgaria Agreement, Mauputo Domestic Service, 7 May 1981, translated in Daily Report, FBIS-MEA-81-089, p. U-1.
57.
Zachary T. Irwin, “Yugoslavia’s Nonalignment in the 1980s,” p. 262.
58.
BTA (Sofia) 18 May 1981, BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, 20 May 1981 in Lexis-Nexis, Academic Universe.
59.
Vietnam News Agency (Hanoi), 4 October 1979 in BBC, “Summary of World Broadcasts,” 6 October 1979 in Lexis-Nexis, Academic Universe.
60.
The issue of “Macedonian” recognition was a long-running staple in Yugoslav-Bulgarian relations. A view may be found in Vlado Teslić, “About Sense and Nonsense of the Grossest Anti-Yugoslav Pamphlet of the Bulgarian Periodical Vekove,” Borba, 27 February1981, in FBIS, Daily Report, EEU-81-045, 9 March 1981, p. 14.
61.
Zdenko Antic, “Yugoslavia’s Foreign Trade in 1981”, Radio Free Europe Research, Background Report 46, 17 February 1982.
62.
Tanjug, 1 October 1981, in FBIS, Daily Report, EEU 81–192, 5 October 1981, p. I2.
63.
Tanjug (Domestic Service), 15 July 1981, in FBIS, Daily Report, EEU 81-136, 16 July 1981, p. I4–5.
64.
Tanjug (Domestic Service), 2 February 1983 in FBIS, Daily Report, EEU 83–025, 4 February 1983, p. I1–2.
65.
Borba, 1 April 1982, p. 6 in FBIS, Daily Report, 82–067, 7 April 1982, p. I4.
66.
Tanjug 6 July 1981 in FBIS, Daily Report, EEU 81–129, 7 July 1981, p. I1.
67.
John C. Campbell, “Communist Strategies in the Mediterranean,” in The Conduct of Soviet Foreign Policy, 2nd ed., edited by Erik P. Hoffmann and Frederic J. Fleron (Hawthorne, NY: Aldine Publishers, 1980), p. 544.
68.
President of the Federal Assembly Dragoslav Markovic and Indian Foreign Minister Narashimo Rao met in March 1982, Tanjug 19 March 1982, FBIS, Daily Report, EEU-82-055, 3 March 1982.
69.
Tanjug 15 January 1982 in FBIS, Daily Report, EEU-82-011, 18 January 1982.
70.
Yasmin Qurashi, “The Seventh Summit of the Nonaligned Nations,” Pakistan Horizons 36, no. 2 (1983): 45–66.
71.
Perović’s views are summarized by Torak Nada, Natasha Seneunovic-Bajic and Liljana Manic “Tito’s Yugoslavia and the “Third Way’: Understanding Physical and Symbolic Borders,” Eurolimes Issue, 11/2011, p. 63, www.ceed.com
72.
Robin Alison Remington, “Foreign Policy”, in Yugoslavia: A Fractured Federalism (Washington, DC: Wilson Center Press, 1988), pp. 166–168.
73.
Viachaslau Yarashevich and Yuliya Karayeva, “Economic Reasons for the Break-up of Yugoslavia,” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 46, no. 2 (June 2013): 263–273, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967067X13000111
74.
Borba, January 28, 1990, in FBIS, Daily Report, EEU 90–025, 6 February 1990, p. 75.
75.
Radoslav Stojanović, Jugoslovenski federalism I spoljnopolitičko odlučivanija (Belgrade: Centar za publicakacije pravnog fakulteta, 1981), pp. 85–89.
76.
Borba, 23–24 June 1990, in FBIS, Daily Report, EEU 90–129, 5 July 1990, p. 85.
77.
Tanjug, 10 May 1990, in FBIS, Daily Report, EEU 90–092, 11 May 1990, p. 49.
78.
Tanjug, 18 September 1984, in FBIS, Daily Re p ort, EEU 84–185, 19 September 1984, p. I1.

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Zachary Irwin

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Gorana Ognjenović
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Irwin, Z. (2016). The Untold Stories of Yugoslavia and Nonalignment. In: Ognjenović, G., Jozelić, J. (eds) Revolutionary Totalitarianism, Pragmatic Socialism, Transition. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59743-4_5

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