Fifteen Eighty Four

In the twelfth through fourteenth centuries, at the height of the cult of the Virgin Mary, a rare and rich conflux of past and present events, both authentic and legendary, catapulted Orvieto into the spotlight as a political, religious, and intellectual center. First papal conflict with the encroaching Holy Roman Emperor and Cathar heresy were suppressed; then popes, prelates, and preaching mendicant friars established themselves in the city. These illustrious people and events, including an alleged Eucharistic miracle and the subsequent papally sanctioned universal feast of Corpus Christi, contributed to the impetus for a grand new cathedral, dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary to honor the devotion of both the city and the founding pope, Nicholas IV (1288–92). Even before he laid the cornerstone in 1290, the pope decreed that the building would emulate his beloved basilica of S. Maria Maggiore in Rome. While scholars have noted similar floor plans and isolated features, they have neither recognized the comprehensiveness of the decree nor that the two extraordinary Marian programs in the Cappella Maggiore conform to the plan. Equally unusual, Orvieto’s Opera del Duomo, the lay governing board of the cathedral, not only funded the cathedral’s construction, but also all decorative artistic programs, vetting all the artists and engaging theological advisors, largely Dominicans, as noted in later documents, which resulted in dense but extraordinarily cohesive multi-layered iconography.

As customary, the artistic programs in the high chapel reflect the cathedral’s dedication, each with its own unique arrangement and agenda; they also reflect the ongoing Cult of the Virgin, which was at its peak in Western Europe. The first program is a stained-glass window, one of the oldest, largest, and arguably the most beautiful in medieval Italy, completed, signed, and dated in 1334 by the renowned artist, Giovanni di Bonino da Assisi (d. 1347). Twenty-two panels recount Mary’s youth through her motherhood and conclude with three scenes of Christ’s adult life and an apocalyptic vision. Not only do the narrative panels include several uncommon scenes, but they alternate in a checkerboard format with twenty-two prophets. This study is the first to accurately identify all the scenes and explain how the prophets relate to the narratives, both horizontally and vertically, and how the narrative choices reflect favored saints of the Orvietans.

The second is the even more undersung fresco cycle of the life of the Virgin Mary, painted between 1370 and 1384 by Ugolino di Prete Ilario (d. c. 1404), a gifted but little-known local artist, and his associates, who had recently completed frescoes in the adjacent Cappella del Corporale. With forty frames, this program is almost certainly the most comprehensive extant monumental Marian cycle in western Europe either before or after this period. Whereas the window shifts to the life of Christ in the last three panes, the frescoes are among the few Marian programs to conclude with her death, assumption, and coronation in heaven. While the frescoes omit some customary events and vary several traditional compositions, they honor all Marian and infancy feasts—some of which rarely appear elsewhere—as well as feasts that celebrate post-Resurrection events for which Mary was present. These post-Resurrection events verified the basic tenants of Christianity and were foundational in the establishment of the church, which the program also celebrates by including saints, prophets, evangelists, and church fathers. A previously unnoticed hierarchical arrangement of the scenes and a shift in the vault to a sparer style hark back to Byzantine ideals.

Although several Orvietan artistic programs have been extensively studied, no one has previously investigated these two works. Scholarly avoidance stems mainly from limited access and heavy-handed restoration, which resulted in a fear of authenticity; however, documents—some of which offer detailed instructions to later artists and artisans who repaired the works—and recent conservation reports prove both programs to be largely authentic. Thus, the integrity of the artists’ styles and the iconography of their programs remain almost completely intact.

Over the course of centuries, context has also changed, which has inhibited the understanding of the artistic programs. In 1537, Pope Paul III ordered that the high altar be moved from the head of the nave to the tribune for better visibility of the Mass, which changed the function of the Cappella Maggiore from a public chapel to a sanctuary that is now roped-off. Some of the frescoes were covered by choirstalls; others are not visible from the nave.

However, once these obstacles are overcome, not only do the programs prove to be innovative in the choices and arrangement of the scenes, but also in the multi-faceted iconography, which comprises a tour de force of Marian devotion, superior artistry, innovation in compositions, and compelling narrative—some drawn from previously unnoticed texts. Moreover, the character analyses of the protagonists show the artists’ familiarity with dramatic productions and their deep understanding of human nature—and the behavior of animals. Each program not only offers a fuller and more down-to-earth characterization of Mary than previous narratives, but also, they elevate her routinely marginalized husband Joseph. At Orvieto, he often plays a central role—sometimes without Mary. Both programs simultaneously promote agendas tied to the city’s history, favored dogma, and the purported miraculous Mass of Bolsena, the relic of which lies in the adjacent chapel—hence, the need to explore the history of the city, prior representations of the life of the Virgin, and which theological advisors likely guided the artists in formulating the complex iconography.

Finally, Giovanni di Bonino and Ugolino di Prete Ilario conform to the predilection of the Opera del Duomo of Orvieto, the governing board of the cathedral, for engaging the finest artists in central Italy. The stimulating environment in Orvieto inspired each artist to achieve the peak of his greatness.  These artists not only left their masterpieces in the high chapel of the cathedral, but also these programs are the best work in their respective media in the central Italy of their generation.