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<b>Trail:</b> Learning the Java Language
<br /><b>Lesson:</b> Classes and Objects
<br /><b>Section:</b> Nested Classes
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<div class="linkLESSON"><a href="index.html">Classes and Objects</a></div>
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<div class="linkBHEAD"><a href="classdecl.html">Declaring Classes</a></div>
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<div class="linkBHEAD"><a href="returnvalue.html">Returning a Value from a Method</a></div>
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<div id="PageTitle"><h1>Local Classes</h1></div>
<div id="PageContent">
<p>Local classes are classes that are defined in a <em>block</em>, which
is a group of zero or more statements between balanced braces.
You typically find local classes defined in the body of a
method.</p>
<p>This section covers the following topics:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="#declaring-local-classes">Declaring Local Classes</a></li>
<li><a href="#accessing-members-of-an-enclosing-class">Accessing Members of an Enclosing Class</a>
<ul>
<li><a href="#shadowing-and-local-classes">Shadowing and Local Classes</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#local-classes-are-similar-to-inner-classes">Local Classes Are Similar To Inner Classes</a></li>
</ul>
<h2><a name="declaring-local-classes">Declaring Local Classes</a></h2>
<p>You can define a local class inside any block (see
<a class="TutorialLink" target="_top" href="../../java/nutsandbolts/expressions.html">Expressions, Statements, and Blocks</a> for more information).
For example, you can define a local class in a method body, a
<code>for</code> loop, or an
<code>if</code> clause.</p>
<p>The following example,
<a class="SourceLink" target="_blank" href="examples/LocalClassExample.java" onclick="showCode('../../displayCode.html', 'examples/LocalClassExample.java'); return false;"><code>LocalClassExample</code></a>, validates two phone numbers. It defines
the local class <code>PhoneNumber</code> in the method
<code>validatePhoneNumber</code>:</p>
<pre class="codeblock">
public class LocalClassExample {
static String regularExpression = "[^0-9]";
public static void validatePhoneNumber(
String phoneNumber1, String phoneNumber2) {
final int numberLength = 10;
// Valid in JDK 8 and later:
// int numberLength = 10;
class PhoneNumber {
String formattedPhoneNumber = null;
PhoneNumber(String phoneNumber){
// numberLength = 7;
String currentNumber = phoneNumber.replaceAll(
regularExpression, "");
if (currentNumber.length() == numberLength)
formattedPhoneNumber = currentNumber;
else
formattedPhoneNumber = null;
}
public String getNumber() {
return formattedPhoneNumber;
}
// Valid in JDK 8 and later:
// public void printOriginalNumbers() {
// System.out.println("Original nubmers are " + phoneNumber1 +
// " and " + phoneNumber2);
// }
}
PhoneNumber myNumber1 = new PhoneNumber(phoneNumber1);
PhoneNumber myNumber2 = new PhoneNumber(phoneNumber2);
// Valid in JDK 8 and later:
// myNumber1.printOriginalNumbers();
if (myNumber1.getNumber() == null)
System.out.println("First number is invalid");
else
System.out.println("First number is " + myNumber1.getNumber());
if (myNumber2.getNumber() == null)
System.out.println("Second number is invalid");
else
System.out.println("Second number is " + myNumber2.getNumber());
}
public static void main(String... args) {
validatePhoneNumber("123-456-7890", "456-7890");
}
}
</pre>
<p>The example validates a phone number by
first removing all characters from the phone number except the
digits 0 through 9. After, it checks whether the phone number
contains exactly ten digits (the length of a phone number in
North America). This example prints the following:</p>
<pre class="codeblock">First number is 1234567890
Second number is invalid</pre>
<h2><a name="accessing-members-of-an-enclosing-class">Accessing Members of an Enclosing Class</a></h2>
<p>A local class has access to the members of its enclosing
class. In the previous example, the <code>PhoneNumber</code> constructor accesses the member <code>LocalClassExample.regularExpression</code>.</p>
<p>In addition, a local class has access to local variables. However, a local class can only access local variables that are declared final. When a local class accesses a local variable or parameter of the enclosing block, it <em>captures</em> that variable or parameter. For example, the <code>PhoneNumber</code> constructor can access the local variable <code>numberLength</code> because it is declared final; <code>numberLength</code> is a <em>captured variable</em>.</p>
<p>However, starting in Java SE 8, a local class can access local variables and
parameters of the enclosing block that are final or <em>effectively final</em>. A variable or parameter whose value is never changed after it is initialized is effectively final. For example, suppose that the variable <code>numberLength</code> is not declared final, and you add the highlighted assignment statement in the <code>PhoneNumber</code> constructor:</p>
<pre class="codeblock">PhoneNumber(String phoneNumber) {
<strong>numberLength = 7;</strong>
String currentNumber = phoneNumber.replaceAll(
regularExpression, "");
if (currentNumber.length() == numberLength)
formattedPhoneNumber = currentNumber;
else
formattedPhoneNumber = null;
}</pre>
<p>Because of this assignment
statement, the variable <code>numberLength</code> is not effectively final anymore. As a result, the Java compiler generates an error message similar to
"local variables referenced from an inner class must be final or effectively final" where the inner class <code>PhoneNumber</code> tries to access the <code>numberLength</code> variable:</p>
<pre class="codeblock">if (currentNumber.length() == numberLength)</pre>
<p>Starting in Java SE 8, if you declare the local class in a method, it can access the method's parameters. For example, you can define the following method in the <code>PhoneNumber</code> local class:</p>
<pre class="codeblock">public void printOriginalNumbers() {
System.out.println("Original numbers are " + phoneNumber1 +
" and " + phoneNumber2);
}</pre>
<p>The method <code>printOriginalNumbers</code> accesses the parameters <code>phoneNumber1</code> and <code>phoneNumber2</code> of the method <code>validatePhoneNumber</code>.</p>
<h3><a name="shadowing-and-local-classes">Shadowing and Local Classes</a></h3>
<p>Declarations of a type (such as a variable) in a local class shadow declarations in the enclosing scope that have the same name. See
<a class="TutorialLink" target="_top" href="../../java/javaOO/nested.html#shadowing">Shadowing</a> for more information.</p>
<h2><a name="local-classes-are-similar-to-inner-classes">Local Classes Are Similar To Inner Classes</a></h2>
<p>Local classes are similar to inner classes because they cannot define or declare any static members. Local classes in static methods, such as the class <code>PhoneNumber</code>, which is defined in the static method <code>validatePhoneNumber</code>, can only refer to static members of the enclosing class. For example, if you do not define the member variable <code>regularExpression</code> as static, then the Java compiler generates an error similar to "non-static variable <code>regularExpression</code> cannot be referenced from a static context."</p>
<p>Local classes are non-static because they have access to
instance members of the enclosing block. Consequently, they
cannot contain most kinds of static declarations.</p>
<p>You cannot declare an interface inside a block; interfaces are
inherently static. For example, the following code excerpt does
not compile because the interface <code>HelloThere</code> is defined inside the
body of the method <code>greetInEnglish</code>:</p>
<pre class="codeblock"> public void greetInEnglish() {
interface HelloThere {
public void greet();
}
class EnglishHelloThere implements HelloThere {
public void greet() {
System.out.println("Hello " + name);
}
}
HelloThere myGreeting = new EnglishHelloThere();
myGreeting.greet();
}</pre>
<p>You cannot declare static
initializers or member interfaces in a local class. The following
code excerpt does not compile because the method
<code>EnglishGoodbye.sayGoodbye</code> is declared <code>static</code>. The compiler generates an error
similar to "modifier 'static' is only allowed in constant
variable declaration" when it encounters this method
definition:</p>
<pre class="codeblock"> public void sayGoodbyeInEnglish() {
class EnglishGoodbye {
public static void sayGoodbye() {
System.out.println("Bye bye");
}
}
EnglishGoodbye.sayGoodbye();
}</pre>
<p>A local class can have
static members provided that they are constant variables. (A <em>constant variable</em> is a variable of primitive type or type <code>String</code> that is declared final and initialized with a compile-time constant expression. A compile-time constant expression is typically a string or an arithmetic expression that can be evaluated at compile time. See
<a class="TutorialLink" target="_top" href="classvars.html">Understanding Class Members</a> for more information.) The
following code excerpt compiles because the static member
<code>EnglishGoodbye.farewell</code> is a
constant variable:</p>
<pre class="codeblock"> public void sayGoodbyeInEnglish() {
class EnglishGoodbye {
public static final String farewell = "Bye bye";
public void sayGoodbye() {
System.out.println(farewell);
}
}
EnglishGoodbye myEnglishGoodbye = new EnglishGoodbye();
myEnglishGoodbye.sayGoodbye();
}</pre>
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